BSU97 
.K375  - 


■     1 

J!; 


The  Bible's   Messagi;   to   Modern   Life 


Twelve  Studies  on 

The  Making  of  a  Nation 

The  Beginnings  of  Israel's  History 


BY 

CHARLES    FOSTER    KENT 
JEREMIAH     WHIPPLE    JENKS 


New  York 

CHARLES   SCRIBNER'S   SONS 

1913 


Copyrighted,  1912,  by  Charles  Scribner's  Sons 


The  best  of  allies  you  can  procure  for  us  is  the  Bible.  That  will  bring 
us  the  reaUty  —  freedom. — Garibaldi. 

If  the  common  schools  have  found  their  way  from  the  Atlantic  to  the 
Pacific;  if  slavery  has  been  aboUshed;  if  the  whole  land  has  been  changed 
from  a  wilderness  into  a  garden  of  plenty,  from  ocean  to  ocean;  if  educa- 
tion has  been  fostered  according  to  the  best  hghts  of  each  generation  since 
then;  if  industry,  frugahty  and  sobriety  are  the  watchwords  of  the  nation, 
as  I  beheve  them  to  be,  I  say  it  is  largely  due  to  those  first  emigrants,  who, 
landing  with  the  EngUsh  Bible  in  their  hands  and  in  their  hearts,  established 
themselves  on  the  shores  of  America. — Joseph  H.  Choate. 

And,  as  it  is  owned,  the  whole  scheme  of  Scripture  is  not  yet  understood, 
so,  if  it  comes  to  be  understood,  it  must  be  in  the  same  way  as  natural 
knowledge  is  come  at;  by  the  continuance  and  progress  of  learning  and  hb- 
erty,  and  by  particular  persons  attending  to,  comparing  and  pursuing 
intimations  scattered  up  and  down  it,  which  are  overlooked  and  disregarded 
by  the  generahty  of  the  world.  Nor  is  it  at  all  incredible  that  a  book  which 
has  been  so  long  in  the  possession  of  mankind  should  contain  many  truths 
as  yet  undiscovered. — Butler. 

Mr.  Lincoln,  as  I  saw  him  every  morning,  in  the  carpet  slippers  he  wore 
in  the  house  and  the  black  clothes  no  tailor  could  make  really  fit  his  gaunt, 
bony  frame,  was  a  homely  enough  figure.  The  routine  of  his  life  was  simple, 
too;  it  would  have  seemed  a  treadmill  to  most  of  us.  He  was  an  early 
riser;  when  I  came  on  duty  at  eight  in  the  morning,  he  was  often  already 
dressed  and  reading  in  the  library.  There  was  a  big  table  near  the  centre 
of  the  room;  there  I  have  seen  him  reading  many  times.  And  the  book? 
It  was  the  Bible  which  I  saw  him  reading  while  most  of  the  household 
slept. — William  H.  Crook,  in  Harper's  Magazine. 

The  Bible  has  such  power  for  teaching  righteousness  that  even  to  those 
who  come  to  it  with  all  sorts  of  false  notions  about  the  God  of  the  Bible, 
it  yet  teaches  righteousness,  and  fills  them  with  the  love  of  it;  how  much 
more  those  who  come  to  it  with  a  true  notion  about  the  God  of  the  Bible. — 
Matthew  Arnold. 

If  we  be  ignorant,  the  Scriptures  will  instruct  us;  if  out  of  the  way,  they 
will  bring  us  home;  if  out  of  order,  they  will  reform  us;  if  in  heaviness,  com- 
fort usj  if  dull,  quicken  usj  if  cold,  inflame  us. — King  James's  Revisers,  1611, 


%%% 


CONTENTS 


Introduction vii 

The  Rediscovery  of  the  Bible.     The  Object  of  These  Studies.     The  Plan  of 
Work.     Books  of  Reference. 

Study        I.     Man's  Place  in  the  World.     The  Story  of  Crea- 
tion, Gen.  1,2 1 


1.  The  Different  Theories  of  Creation.  2.  The  Priestly  Story  of  Creation. 
3.  The  Early  Prophetic  Story  of  Creation.  4.  A  Comparison  of  the  Two 
Accounts  of  Creation.  5.  Man's  Conquest  and  Rulership  of  the  World. 
6.  Man's  Responsibility  as  the  Ruler  of  the  World. 

Study      II.     Man's  Responsibility  for  His  Acts.     The  Story 

of  the  Garden  of  Eden,  Gen.  3 7 

1.  The  Nature  of  Sin.  2.  The  Origin  of  Sin  According  to  the  Story  in  Genesis 
3.  3.  The  Different  Theories  Regarding  the  Origin  of  Sin.  4.  The  Effects 
of  Sin  upon  the  Wrong-doer.  5.  God's  Attitude  toward  the  Sinner. 
6.  The  Effect  of  Sin  upon  Society. 

Study     III.     The  Criminal  and  His  Relation  to  Society.     The 

Story  of  Cain,  Gen.  4: 1-16 12 

1.  The  Meaning  of  the  Story  of  Cain.     2.  The  Making  of  a  Criminal. 

3.  The  Criminal's  Attitude  toward  Society.  4.  The  Ways  in  which  Society 
Deals  with  the  Criminal.  5.  How  to  Deal  with  Criminals.  6.  The  Pre- 
vention of  Crime. 

Study     IV.     The  Survival  of  the  Fittest.     The  Story  of  the 

Great  Flood,  Gen.  6-9 18 

1.  The  Two  Biblical  Accounts  of  the  Flood.  2.  The  Corresponding  Baby- 
lonian Flood  Stories.  3.  History  of  the  Biblical  Flood  Stories.  4.  Aim  of 
the  Biblical  Writers  in  Recounting  the  Flood  Stories.  5.  The  Survival  of 
the  "Fittest"  in  the  Natural  World.     6.  In  Social  and  Political  Life. 

Study  V.  The  Pioneer's  Influence  upon  a  Nation's  Ideal. 
Abraham,  the  Traditional  Father  of  the  Race,  Gen.  12:  1-8; 
13: 1-13;  16;  18;  19;  21: 1-7;  22: 1-19 29 

1.  The  Prophetic  Stories  about  Abraham.  2.  The  Meaning  of  the  Early 
Prophetic  Stories  about  Abraham.    3.  TheProphetio  Portrait  of  Abraham. 

4.  The  Tendency  to  Idealize  National  Heroes.  5.  The  Reasons  for 
Migration.  6.  The  Permanent  Value  and  Influence  of  the  Abraham 
Narratives. 

Study     VI.    The  Power  op  Ambition.     Jacob  the  Persistent, 

Gen.  25: 10-33:  20 37 

1.  The  Two  Brothers.  Jacob  and  Esau.  2.  The  Man  with  a  Wrong  Ambi- 
tion. 3.  Jacob's  Training  in  the  School  of  Experience.  4.  The  Invincible 
Power  of  Ambition  and  Perseverance.  5.  The  Different  Types  of  Ambition. 
6.  The  Development  of  Right  Ambitions. 

Study  VII.  A  Successful  Man  op  Affairs.  Joseph's  Achieve- 
ments, Gen.  37;  39-48;  50 44 

1.  jThe  Qualities  Essential  to  Success.  2.  The  Limitations  and  Tempta- 
tions of  Joseph's  Early  Life.  3.  The  Call  of  a  Great  Opportunity.  4.  The 
Temptations  of  Success.  5.  The  Standards  of  Real  Success.  6.  The 
Methods  of  Success. 


vi  Contents 


PAGB 


Study  VIII.    The  Training  of  a  Statesman.     Moses  in  Egypt 

and  the  Wilderness,  Ex.  1 :  1—7:  5    51 

1.  The  Egyptian  Background.'  2.  The  Making  of  a  Loyal  Patriot. 
3.  The  School  of  the  Wilderness.  ,4.  Moses'  Call  to  Public  Service.  5.  The 
Education  of  Public  Opinion.     6.._The  Training  of  Modern  Statesmen. 

Study     IX.     The  Origin  and  Growth  of  Law.     Moses'  Work 

as  Judge  and  Prophet,  Ex.  18:  5-27;  33:  5-11 62 

1.  The  Needs  that  Give  Rise  to  Law.     2.  The  Growth  of  Customary  Law. 

3.  The  Authority  Underlying  all  Law.  4.  Moses'  Relations  to  the  Old 
Testament  Laws.  5.  The  Development  of  Modern  Law.  6.  The  Atti- 
tude of  Citizens  toward  the  Law. 

Study      X.     The    Foundations    of    Good    Citizenship.     The 

Ten  Commandments,  Ex.  20:  1-17 70 

1.  The  History  of  the  Prophetic  Decalogue.  2.  Obligations  of  the  Indi- 
vidual to  God.     3.  The  Social  and  Ethical  Basis  of  the    Sabbath  Law. 

4.  The  Importance  of  Children's  Loyalty  to  Parents.  5.  Primary  Obliga- 
tions of  Man  to  Man.  6.  The  Present-day  Authority  of  the  Ten  Com- 
mandments. 

Study  XI.  The  Early  Training  of  a  Race.  Israel's  Experi- 
ence in  the  Wilderness  and  East  of  the  Jordan,  Num.  11-14: 
21:  21-31;  32:  39-42 81 

1.  The  Wilderness  Environment.  2.  Influence  of  the  Nomadic  Life  upon 
Israel's  Character  and  Ideals.  3.  The  Influence  of  the  Wilderness  Life 
upon  Israel's  Faith.     4.  The  Significance  of  the  East-Jordan  Conquests. 

5.  The  Significance  of  Moses'  Work.  6.  The  Early  Stages  in  the  Training 
of  the  Human  Race. 

Study  XII.    A  Nation's  Struggle  for  a  Home  and  Freedom. 

Israel's -Victories  over  the  Canaanites,  Josh.  2-9;  Judg.  1,  4,  5.        90 

1.  The  Crossing  of  the  Jordan.  2.  The  Canaanite  Civilization.  3.  The 
Capture  of  the  Outposts  of  Palestine.  4.  Ways  by  which  the  Hebrews 
Won  Their  Homes.  5.  Deborah's  Rally  of  the  Hebrews.  6.  The  Final 
Stage  in  the  Making  of  the  Hebrew  Nation. 


INTRODUCTION 

THE  REDISCOVERY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

In  the  early  Christian  centuries  thousands  turned  to  the 
Bible,  as  drowning  men  to  a  hfe  buoy,  because  it  offered  them 
the  only  way  of  escape  from  the  intolerable  social  and  moral 
ills  that  attended  the  death  pangs  of  the  old  heathenism. 
Then  came  the  Dark  Ages,  with  their  resurgent  heathenism 
and  barbarism,  when  the  Bible  was  taken  from  the  hands  of 
the  people.  In  the  hour  of  a  nation's  deepest  humihation  and 
moral  depravity,  John  WycUffe,  with  the  aid  of  a  devoted  army 
of  lay  priests,  gave  back  the  Bible  to  the  people,  and  in  so  doing 
laid  the  foundations  for  England's  intellectual,  political  and 
moral  greatness.  The  joy  and  inspiration  of  the  Protestant 
Reformers  was  the  rediscovery  and  popular  interpretation  of 
the  Bible.  In  all  the  great  forward  movements  of  the  modern 
centuries  the  Bible  has  played  a  central  role.  The  ultimate 
basis  of  our  magnificent  modern  scientific  and  material  prog- 
ress is  the  inspiration  given  to  the  human  race  by  the  Prot- 
estant Reformation. 

Unfortunately,  the  real  meaning  and  message  of  the  Bible 
has  been  in  part  obscured  during  past  centuries  by  dogmatic 
interpretations.  The  study  of  the  Bible  has  also  been  made  a 
solemn  obligation  rather  than  a  joyous  privilege.  The  remark- 
able discoveries  of  the  present  generation  and  its  new  and  larger 
sense  of  power  and  progress  have  tended  to  turn  men's  atten- 
tion from  the  contemplation  of  the  heritage  which  comes  to 
them  from  the  past.  The  result  is  that  most  men  know  Httle 
about  the  Bible.  They  are  acquainted  wdth  its  chief  charac- 
ters such  as  Abraham,  David  and  Jesus.  A  few  are  even  able 
to  give  a  clear-cut  outline  of  the  important  events  of  Israel's 
history;  but  they  regard  it  simply  as  a  history  whose  associa- 
tions and  interests  belong  to  a  bygone  age.  How  many  realize 
that  most  of  the  problems  which  Israel  met  and  solved  are 
similar  to  those  which  to-day  are  commanding  the  absorbing 
attention  of  every  patriotic  citizen,  and  that  of  all  existing  books, 
the  Old  Testament  makes  the  greatest  contributions  to  the  polit- 
ical and  social,  as  well  as  to  the  religious  thought  of  the  world? 
National  expansion,  taxation,  centralization  of  authority,  civic 

viz 


viii  Introduction 

responsibility,  the  relation  of  religion  to  politics  and  to  public 
morality  were  as  vital  and  insistent  problems  in  ancient  Israel 
as  they  are  in  any  live,  progressive  nation  to-day.  The  grad- 
ual discovery  of  this  fact  explains  why  here  and  there  through- 
out the  world  the  leaders  in  modem  thought  and  progress  are 
studying  the  Bible  with  new  delight  and  enthusiasm,  not  only 
because  of  its  intrinsic  beauty  and  interest,  but  because  in  it 
they  find,  stated  in  clearest  form,  the  principles  which  eluci- 
date the  intricate  problems  of  modem  life. 

The  Objects  of  These  Studies. 

There  are  two  distinct  yet  important  ways  of  interpreting 
the  Bible:  The  one  is  that  of  the  scholar  who  knows  the  Bible 
from  the  linguistic,  historical  and  literary  point  of  view;  the 
other,  that  of  the  man  who  knows  life  and  who  realizes  the 
meaning  and  value  of  the  Bible  to  those  who  are  confronted 
by  insistent  social,  economic  and  individual  problems.  These 
studies  aim  to  combine  both  methods  of  interpretation. 

Briefly  defined  the  chief  objects  of  these  studies  are: 

(1)  To  introduce  the  men  and  women  of  to-day  to  that  which 
is  most  vital  in  the  literature  and  thought  of  the  Old  Testament. 

(2)  To  interpret  the  often  neglected  Old  Testament  into  the 
language  of  modern  life  simply  and  directly  and  in  the  fight  of 
that  which  is  highest  in  the  teachings  of  Christianity. 

(3)  To  present  the  constructive  results  of  the  modern 
historical  and  fiterary  study  of  the  Bible,  not  dogmatically 
but  tentatively,  so  that  the  reader  and  student  may  be  in  a 
position  to  judge  for  himself  regarding  the  conclusions  that  are 
held  by  a  large  number  of  Bibfical  scholars  and  to  estimate 
their  practical  refigious  value. 

(4)  To  show  how  closely  the  Old  Testament  is  related  to  the 
life  of  to-day  and  how  it  helps  to  answer  the  pressing  questions 
now  confronting  the  nations. 

(5)  To  lead  strong  men  to  think  through  our  national,  social 
and  individual  problems,  and  to  utilize  fearlessly  and  prac- 
tically the  constructive  results  of  modem  method  and  research 
in  the  fields  of  both  science  and  religion. 

The  Plan  of  Work. 

These  studies  are  planned  to  meet  the  needs  of  college  students 
and  adult  Bible  classes.  Those  who  are  able  to  command  more 
time  and  wish  to  do  more  thorough  work  will  find  in  the  list  of 


Introduction  ix 

Parallel  Readings  on  the  first  page  of  each  study  carefully- 
selected  references  to  the  best  authorities  on  the  subject  treated. 
For  their  guidance  are  also  provided  Subjects  for  Further  Study. 
In  using  this  text-book  the  student  may  proceed  as  follows: 

(1)  Read  carefully  the  Biblical  passage  indicated  in  connec- 
tion with  each  title;  for  example,  in  the  first  study,  Genesis  1 
and  2. 

(2)  Read  the  Biblical  and  other  quotations  on  the  first  page 
of  each  study.  Unless  otherwise  indicated  the  Biblical  quota- 
tions are  from  the  American  Revised  Version.  They  include 
the  most  important  Biblical  passages.  The  other  quotations 
embody  some  of  the  best  contributions  of  ancient  and  modern 
writers  to  the  subject  under  consideration. 

(3)  Read  and  think  through  the  material  presented  under  each 
paragraph.  This  material  is  arranged  under  six  headings  for 
the  convenience  of  those  who  wish  to  follow  the  plan  of  daily 
reading  and  study. 

Books  of  Reference. 

The  books  suggested  in  connection  with  this  course  have  been 
carefully  selected  in  order  that  each  person  may  have  for  his 
individual  use  a  practical  working  Hbrary.  The  following 
should  be  at  hand  for  constant  reference. 

Kent,  C.  F.,  The  Historical  Bible,  Vols.  I  and  II.  Contains 
the  important  Biblical  passages  arranged  in  chronological  order 
and  provided  with  the  historical,  geographical  and  archaeological 
notes  required  for  their  clear  imderstanding.  The  translation 
is  based  on  the  oldest  manuscripts  and  embodies  the  construc- 
tive results  of  modern  Bibhcal  research.  New  York,  $1.00  each. 

Jenks,  J.  W.,  Principles  of  Politics,  New  York,  $1.25. 
Prepared  to  explain  the  principles  by  which  political  action  is 
governed  and  thus  to  aid  thoughtful  citizens  both  to  gain  a 
clear  outlook  on  life  and  wisely  to  direct  their  own  political 
activity. 

Aristotle,  Politics.  The  greatest  masterpiece  of  scientific 
political  thought.  Its  different  point  of  view  will  suggest  many 
illuminating  comparisons  between  Greek  and  modem  pohtical 
ideals  and  institutions  and  give  the  reader  a  broad  basis  for 
the  appreciation  of  that  which  is  essential  and  endiuing  in  the 
statecraft  of  all  ages.    $2.50. 

For  further  parallel  study  the  following  books  are  suggested: 

Breasted,  J.  H.,  History  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians.  Clear, 
concise  and  authoritative.    New  York,  $1.25. 


X  Introduction 

Bryce,  James,  The  American  Commonwealth,  Vols.  I,  II.  New 
York,  S2.00  each.     Best  commentary  on  American  Government. 

Cooper,  C.  S.,  The  Bible  and  Moder7i  Life.  Presents  the  point 
of  view  from  which  the  Bible  may  most  profitably  be  studied 
and  contains  valuable  suggestions  regarding  the  organization 
and  work  of  college  and  adult  classes.     New  York,  $1.25. 

Driver,  S.  R.,  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. New  York,  $2.50.  A  sane,  thorough  study  of  the  origin, 
history,  and  contents  of  the  Old  Testament  books. 

Goodspeed,  G.  S.,  History  of  the  Babylonians  and  Assyrians. 
New  York,  SI. 25.  A  comprehensive  and  attractive  picture  of 
the  life  of  these  ancient  people. 

Hadley,  A.  T.,  Standards  of  Public  Morality.  New  York, 
$1.00.  A  suggestive  study  of  the  application  of  moral  principles 
to  the  life  of  society. 

Hastings,  James,  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  Vols.  1-5.  New 
York,  $6.00  each.  A  summary  of  the  historical,  literary, 
geographical  and  archaeological  facts  which  constitute  the 
background  of  the  life  and  thought  of  the  Bible. 

Kent,  C.  F.,  The  Beginnings  of  Hebrew  History  and  Israel's  His- 
torical and  Biographical  Narratives.  (Vols.  I  and  II  of  Student's 
Old  Testament.)  $2.75  each.  Presents  in  a  clear,  modern  transla- 
tion the  original  sources  incorporated  in  the  historical  books  of 
the  Old  Testament,  the  origin  and  literary  history  of  these  books, 
and  the  important  parallel  Babylonian  and  Assyrian  literature. 

Kent,  C.  F.,  Biblical  Geography  and  History.  New  York, 
$1.50.  A  clear  portrayal  of  the  physical  characteristics  of 
Palestine  and  of  the  potent  influences  which  that  land  has 
exerted  throughout  the  ages  upon  its  inhabitants. 

McFadyen,  J.  E.,  Messages  of  the  Prophets  and  Priestly 
Historians.  New  York,  $1.25.  A  fresh  and  effective  interpreta- 
tion of  the  historical  and  spiritual  messages  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment historical  books  into  the  language  and  thought  of  to-day. 

Smith,  H.  P.,  Old  Testament  History.  New  York,  $2.50. 
A  thorough,  well-proportioned  presentation  of  the  unfolding 
of  Israel's  history. 

Wilson,  Woodrow,  Constitutional  Government  in  the  United 
States.  $1.50.  A  constructive  judgment  of  the  American 
constitution. 

Seeley,  J.  R.,  Introduction  to  Political  Science.  $1.50.  An 
effective  example  of  the  application  of  the  historical  methods  to 
politics. 


STUDY  I 

MAN'S  PLACE  IN  THE  WORLD. 
The  Story  of  Creation  —  Gen.  1  and  2. 

Parallel  Readings. 
Kent,  Historical  Bible,  Vol.  I,  pp.  1-7,  231-3. 

Articles,  "Evolution"  and  "Cosmogony,"  in  Ency.  Brit,  or  Inter.  Ency., 
or  any  standard  encyclopedia. 

God  created  man  in  his  own  image,  in  the  image  of  God  created  he  him; 
male  and  female  created  he  them.  And  God  blessed  them,  and  God  said 
unto  them,  Be  fruitful,  and  multiply,  and  replenish  the  earth,  and  subdue 
it;  and  have  dominion  over  the  fish  of  the  sea,  and  over  the  birds  of  the 
heavens,  and  over  every  Uving  thing  that  moveth  upon  the  earth. — Gen.  1: 

21  y  28. 

When  I  consider  thy  heavens,  the  work  of  thy  fingers, 

The  moon  and  the  stars  which  thou  hast  ordained; 

What  is  man,  that  thou  art  mindful  of  him? 

And  the  son  of  man  that  thou  visitest  him? 

For  thou  hast  made  him  but  httle  lower  than  God, 

And  crownest  him  with  glory  and  honor. 

Thou  makest  him  to  have  dominion  over  the  works  of  thine  hands, 

Thou  hast  put  all  things  under  his  feet. — Fs.  8: 3-6. 

God  clothed  men  with  strength  like  his  own, 

And  made  them  according  to  his  own  image. 

He  put  the  fear  of  them  upon  all  flesh, 

That  they  should  have  dominion  over  beasts  and  birds. 

Mouth  and  tongue,  eyes  and  ears, 

And  a  mind  with  which  to  think  he  gave  them; 

With  insight  and  wisdom  he  filled  their  minds, 

Good  and  evil  he  taught  them.     Ben  Sira.  17,  3-7  (Hist.  Bible). 

All  things  were  made  through  him;  and  without  him  was  not  any  thing 
made  that  hath  been  made. — John  1:3. 

I. 

Different  Theories  of  Creation. 

Every  early  people  naturally  asked  the  questions,  How  were 
things  made?  How  were  men  created?  First  of  all,  Who 
made  the  world?  They  necessarily  answered  them  according 
to  their  own  dawning  knowledge. 

The  most  primitive  races  believed  that  some  great  animal 
created  the  earth  and  man.  In  the  Alaskan  collection  in  the 
musemn  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  there  is  a  huge 
crow,  sitting  upon  the  mask  of  a  man's  face.     This  symbolizes 

1 


2  The  Making  of  a  Nation 

the  crude  belief  of  the  Alaskan  Indians  regarding  the  way  man 
was  created.  The  early  Egyptians  thought  that  the  earth  and 
man  were  hatched  out  of  an  egg.  In  one  part  of  Egypt  it  was 
held  that  the  artisan  god  Ptah  broke  the  egg  with  his  hammer. 
In  another  part  of  the  land  and  probably  at  a  later  date  the 
tradition  was  current  that  Thoth  the  moon  god  spoke  the  world 
into  existence.     The  earliest  Babylonian  record  states  that: 

The  god  Marduk  laid  a  reed  on  the  face  of  the  waters, 

He  formed  dust  and  poured  it  out  beside  the  reed; 

That  he  might  cause  the  gods  to  dwell  in  the  dwellings  of  their  heart's 

desire, 
He  formed  mankind. 

Later  he  formed  the  grass  and  the  rush  of  the  marsh  and  the 
forest.     Then  he  created  the  animals  and  their  young. 

The  Parsee  teachers  held  that  the  rival  gods,  Ahriman  and 
Ormuzd,  evolved  themselves  out  of  primordial  matter  and  then 
through  the  long  ages  created  their  attendant  hierarchies  of 
angels.  The  philosophers  of  India  anticipated  in  some  respects 
our  modem  evolutionary  theory.  Brahma  is  thought  of  as 
self -existent  and  eternal.  He  gradually  condenses  himself  into 
material  objects,  such  as  ether,  fire,  water,  earth  and  the  ele- 
ments. Last  of  all  he  manifests  himself  in  man.  The  Greek 
philosophers  were  the  first  to  attempt  to  describe  creation  as  a 
purely  physical,  generative  process.  They  taught  the  evolu- 
tion of  the  more  complex  from  the  simpler  forms.  Plato  and 
Aristotle  believed  in  a  transcendental  deity  and  found  in  the 
world  indications  of  a  vital  impulse  toward  a  higher  manifesta- 
tion of  life — man. 

Michael  Angelo,  with  wonderful  dramatic  power,  in  his  paint- 
ing in  the  Sistine  Chapel  at  Rome  has  portrayed  how  lifeless 
clay  in  form  of  man,  when  touched  by  the  finger  of  God,  by 
sheer  vitalizing  power  is  transformed  into  a  living  soul. 

Very  different  yet  equally  impressive  is  the  modem  scientific 
view.  The  origin  of  matter  and  of  life  is  so  absolutely  unknown 
that  scientists  have  not  as  yet  formulated  definite  theories  con- 
cerning it.  Even  the  theories  regarding  the  origin  of  the  solar 
system  are  still  conflicting  and  none  is  generally  accepted. 
The  old  nebular  hypothesis  is  discredited  and  the  theory  of  the 
spiral  movement  of  the  solar  matter  seems  to  be  confirmed  by 
phenomena  observable  in  the  heavens.  The  one  principle  gen- 
erally held  by  scientists  is  that,  given  matter  and  life  and  some 
creating  force,  our  present  marvelous  complex  universe  has  come 


Man^s  Place  in  the  World  3 

into  being  according  to  laws  usually  called  natural.  These 
laws  are  so  invariable  that  they  may  be  considered  unchanging. 

Even  more  definitely  established  is  the  so-called  theory  of 
evolution  which  is  based  on  the  careful  observation  and  compari- 
son of  countless  thousands  of  natural  phenomena.  According 
to  the  Encyclopedia  Britaimica  it  is  the  history  of  the  physical 
process  by  which  all  living  beings  have  acquired  the  charac- 
teristics, physical,  mental,  moral,  and  spiritual,  which  now  dis- 
tinguish them.  It  recognizes  the  gradual  development  from  the 
simplest  to  the  most  complex  forms.  It  is  merely  an  attempt  to 
describe  in  the  light  of  careful  observation  and  investigation 
the  process  of  growth  by  which  the  world  and  the  beings  which 
inhabit  it  have  grown  into  what  they  are. 

A  comparison  of  the  Hebrew  account  of  creation  with  those 
of  other  races  and  times  is  extremely  suggestive. 

II. 

The  Priestly  Story  of  Creation. 

Note  that  the  first  and  second  chapters  of  Genesis  contain 
two  distinct  accounts  of  creation. 

Read  Genesis  1 :  1 — 2:  3  (see  Hist.  Bib.,  I,  pp.  231-3  for  modem 
translation),  noting  its  picture  of  conditions  in  the  imiverse 
before  the  actual  work  of  creation  began.  The  creative  power 
is  the  spirit  or  breath  of  God.  The  Hebrew  word  for  spirit 
(ruah)  represents  the  sound  of  the  breath  as  it  emerges  from  the 
mouth  or  the  sound  of  the  wind  as  it  sighs  through  the  trees. 
It  is  the  effective  symbol  of  a  real  and  mighty  force  that  cannot 
be  seen  or  touched  yet  produces  terrific  effects,  as  when  the  cy- 
clone rends  the  forest  or  transforms  the  sea  into  a  mountain  of 
billows  and  twists  like  straws  the  masts  of  wood  and  steel.  In 
the  Old  Testament  the  '' spirit  of  God"  or  the  '' spirit  of  the 
Holy  One"  is  God  working  (1)  in  the  material  universe,  as  in 
the  work  of  creation,  (2)  in  human  history,  as  when  he  directs 
the  life  of  nations,  or  (3)  in  the  lives  of  men. 

Note  the  method  of  creation  and  the  distinctive  work  of 
each  day.  The  process  is  that  of  separation.  It  is  orderly 
and  progressive.  The  first  three  days  of  preparation  in  which 
(1)  light  and  darkness,  (2)  air  and  water  (separated  by  the  firma- 
ment) and  (3)  land  and  vegetation  are  created,  correspond  to 
the  work  of  the  second  three  days  in  which  are  created  (1)  the 
heavenly  bodies,  (2)  the  birds  and  fishes  (which  live  in  the  air 
and  water)  and  (3)  land  animals  and  man.    The  underlying 


4  The  Making  of  a  Nation 

conception  of  the  universe  is  that  held  by  most  early 'peoples. 
Compare  the  diagram  in  Hastings*  Didionanj  of  the  Bible  I, 
503  or  Kent's  Student's  Old  Testament,  Vol.  I,  p.  52  which  il- 
lustrates it. 

God's  benign  plan  is  revealed  by  the  recurring  words:  "God 
saw  that  it  was  good."  What  was  the  culminating  act  of  crea- 
tion? "  Created  man  in  his  image  "  can  not  mean  with  a  body 
like  that  of  God  (for  in  this  story  God  is  thought  of  as  a  spirit), 
but  rather  with  a  God-Uke  spirit,  mind,  will,  and  power  to  rule. 

III. 

The  Early  Prophetic  Story  of  Creation. 

The  opening  words  of  the  second  account  of  creation,  which 
begins  in  the  fourth  verse  of  the  second  chapter  of  Genesis,  im- 
ply that  the  earth  and  the  heavens  have  already  been  created. 

"In  the  day  that  Jehovah  made  earth  and  heaven,  no  plant 
of  the  field  was  yet  on  the  earth,  and  no  herb  of  the  field  had  yet 
sprung  up,  for  Jehovah  had  not  caused  it  to  rain  upon  the  earth, 
and  there  was  no  man  to  till  the  ground;  but  a  mist  used  to  rise 
from  the  earth  and  water  the  whole  face  of  the  ground." 

It  is  possible  that  here  only  a  part  of  the  original  story  is 
preserved.  What  is  the  order  in  the  story  of  creation  found 
in  this  second  chapter?     The  method  of  man's  creation? 

According  to  this  account,  the  tree  of  life  was  planted  in  the 
garden  that  man,  while  he  lived  there,  might  enjoy  immortal- 
ity. Was  the  tree  of  the  knowledge  of  good  and  evil  placed  in 
the  garden  to  develop  man's  moral  nature  by  temptation  or 
merely  to  inculcate  obedience? 

The  love  between  the  sexes  is  apparently  implanted  in  all 
living  beings  primarily  for  the  conservation  of  the  species,  but 
the  early  prophet  also  recognized  clearly  the  broader  intellectual 
and  moral  aspects  of  the  relation.  "  It  is  not  good  for  man  to  be 
alone  "  were  the  significant  words  of  Jehovah.  Hence  animals, 
birds,  and,  last  of  all,  woman,  were  created  to  meet  man's 
innate  social  needs.     Man's  words  on  seeing  woman  were: 

"This,  now,  is  bone  of  my  bone 

And  flesh  of  my  flesh. 
This  one  shall  be  called  woman, 
For  from  man  was  she  taken." 

What  fundamental  explanation  is  here  given  of  the  insti- 
tution of  marriage?  Compare  Jesus'  confirmation  of  this 
teaching  in  Matthew  19:  4-5: 


Man's  Place  in  the  World  5 

''And  he  answered  and  said,  Have  ye  not  read,  that  he  who 
made  them  from  the  beginning  made  them  male  and  female, 
and  said,  For  this  cause  shall  a  man  leave  his  father  and  mother, 
and  shall  cleave  to  his  wife:  and  the  two  shall  become  one  flesh?" 

IV. 

A  Comparison  of  the  Two  Accounts  of  Creation. 

The  account  of  creation  found  in  the  second  chapter  sug- 
gests the  simple,  direct  ideas  of  a  primitive  people;  while  the 
account  in  Genesis  1  has  the  exact,  repetitious^  majestic  hterary 
style  of  a  legal  writer.  Are  the  differences  between  these  two 
accounts  of  creation  greater  than  those  between  the  parallel 
narratives  in  the  Gospels?  We  recognize  that  the  differences 
in  detail  between  the  Gospel  accoimts  of  the  same  event  are 
due  to  the  fact  that  no  two  narrators  tell  the  same  story  in  the 
same  way.  Are  the  variations  between  the  two  Biblical  ac- 
counts of  creation  to  be  similarly  explained?  A  growing  body 
of  Bibhcal  scholars  hold,  though  many  differ  in  judgment, 
that  the  account  in  the  first  chapter  of  Genesis  was  written  by 
a  priestly  writer  who  lived  about  four  hundred  B.C.,  and  the 
second  account  four  hundred  years  earlier  by  a  patriotic, 
prophetic  historian. 

Observe  that  the  two  accounts  agree  in  the  following  fimda- 
mental  teachings:  (1)  One  supreme  God  is  the  Creator;  (2) 
man  is  closely  akin  to  God;  (3)  all  else  is  created  for  man's 
best  and  noblest  development. 

Is  the  primary  aim  of  these  accounts  to  present  scientific 
facts  or  to  teach  religious  truths?  Paul  says  in  Timothy  that 
^'  Every  scripture  inspired  of  God  is  also  profitable  for  teaching, 
for  reproof,  for  correction,  for  instruction  which  is  in  righteous- 
ness.' '  Is  their  religious  value,  even  as  in  the  parables  of  the  New 
Testament,  entirely  independent  of  their  historical  or  scientific 
accuracy?  Is  there  any  contradiction  between  the  distinctive 
teachings  of  the  Bible  and  modem  science?  Do  not  the  Bible 
and  science  deal  with  two  different  but  supplemental  fields 
of  life:  the  one  with  religion  and  morals,  the  other  with  the 
physical  world? 

V. 

Man's  Conquest  and  Rulership  of  the  World. 
In  the  story  of  Genesis  1  man  is  commanded  to  subdue  the 
earth  and  to  have  dominion  over  the  fish  of  the  sea  and  over  the 


6  The  Making  of  a  Nation 

birds  of  the  heavens  and  over  every  living  thing  that  creeps 
upon  the  earth.  How  far  has  man  already  subdued  the  animals 
and  made  them  serve  him?  How  far  has  he  conquered  the  so- 
called  natural  forces  and  learned  to  utilize  them?  Is  the  latter 
day  conquest  of  the  air  but  a  step  in  this  progress?  Are  all 
inventions  and  developments  of  science  in  keeping  with  the 
purpose  expressed  in  Genesis  1?  Does  the  command  imply  the 
immediate  or  the  gradual  conquest  of  nature?  Why?  Do 
science  and  the  Bible  differ  or  agree  in  their  answers  to  these 
questions? 

VI. 

Man^s  Responsibility  as  the  Ruler  of  the  World. 

Consider  the  different  ways  in  which  the  Biblical  accounts 
of  creation  state  that  man  is  akin  to  God.  In  the  one  accoimt 
man  was  created  in  the  image  of  God;  in  the  other  Jehovah 
formed  man  of  the  dust  of  the  ground  and  breathed  into  his 
nostrils  his  own  life-giving  breath.  In  what  sense  is  man  God- 
like? Are  all  men  ''made  in  the  image  of  God"?  Does  this 
story  imply  that  every  man  has  the  right  and  capacity  to  become 
God-like? 

A  high  official  of  China,  whose  power  of  authority  extends  to 
questions  of  life  and  death,  is  called  ''the  father  and  mother 
of  his  people.''  If  he  fails  in  the  responsibility  which  his  author- 
ity imposes  upon  him,  and  the  people  in  consequence  create  a 
disturbance,  he  is  severely  punished,  sometimes  by  death. 
Does  authority  always  imply  responsibility?  Of  what  value 
to  man  is  the  conquest  of  the  forces  of  nature?  President 
Roosevelt  said  that  he  considered  the  conservation  of  the 
natural  resources  of  the  United  States  the  most  important 
question  before  the  American  people.  Is  this  political  question 
also  a  religious  question? 

Why  did  God  give  man  authority  over  the  animal  world? 
Does  the  responsibility  that  comes  from  this  authority  rest 
upon  every  man?  One  of  the  laws  of  the  Boy  Scouts  reads: 
"  A  scout  is  kind.  He  is  a  friend  to  animals.  He  will  not  kill 
nor  hurt  any  living  creature  needlessly,  but  will  strive  to  save 
and  protect  all  harmless  life."  Is  this  a  practical  application 
of  the  teaching  in  Genesis  1? 

If  God's  purpose  is  to  make  everything  good,  man's  highest 
privilege,  as  well  as  duty,  is  to  co-operate  with  him  in  realizing 
that  purpose.    Are  men  to-day  as  a  whole  growing  happier  and 


Man's  Responsibility  for  His  Acts  7 

nobler?     In  what  practical  ways  may  a  man  contribute  to  the 
happiness  and  ennobling  of  his  fellow  men? 

Is  your  community  growing  better?  What  would  be  the 
result  if  you  and  others  like  yourself  did  your  best  to  improve 
conditions?    If  so,  how? 

Questions  for  Further  Consideration. 

Is  man's  possession  of  knowledge  and  power  the  ultimate  object  of  crea- 
tion? If  not,  what  is?  Does  human  experience  suggest  that  man's  Ufa 
on  earth  is,  in  its  ultimate  meaning,  simply  a  school  for  the  development  of 
individual  character  and  for  the  perfecting  of  the  human  race? 

Is  there  any  other  practical  way  in  which  a  man  can  serve  God  except  by 
serving  his  fellowmen?     If  so,  how? 

Subjects  for  Further  Study. 

(1)  The  Origin  and  Content  of  the  Babylonian  Stories  of  Creation. — 
Hastmgs,  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  I,  501-7;  Kent,  Student's  0.  T.,  I,  360-9. 

(2)  The  Relation  of  the  Biblical  Story  of  the  Creation  to  the  Babylonian. 
—Kent,  Student's  0.  T.,  I,  369-70. 

(3)  The  Seeming  Conflict  Between  the  Teachings  of  the  Bible  and  Science 
and  the  Practical  Reconciliation. — Sir  Oliver  Lodge:  Science  and  Immor- 
tality, Section  1. 


STUDY  II 

MAN'S  RESPONSIBILITY  FOR  HIS  ACTS. 
The  Story  of  the  Garden  of  Eden. — Gen.  3. 

Parallel  Readings. 
Hist.  Bible,  Vol.  I,  37-42. 
Drummond,  Ideal  Life,  Chaps,  on  Sin. 

And  when  the  woman  saw  that  the  tree  was  good  for  food  and  that  it  was 
a  delight  to  the  eye,  and  that  the  tree  was  to  be  desired  to  make  one  wise, 
she  took  of  the  fruit  thereof,  and  did  eat;  and  she  gave  also  unto  her  hus- 
band with  her  and  he  did  eat.  And  the  eyes  of  them  both  were  opened  and 
they  heard  the  voice  of  Jehovah  God  walking  in  the  garden  in  the  cool  of  the 
day:  and  the  man  and  his  wife  hid  themselves  from  the  presence  of  Jehovah 
God  amongst  the  trees  of  the  garden. — Gen.  3:6-8. 

Blessed  is  the  man  that  endureth  temptation;  for  when  he  hath  been  ap- 
proved, he  shall  receive  a  crown  of  Ufe,  which  the  Lord  promised  to  them 
that  love  him.  Let  no  man  say  when  he  is  tempted,  I  am  tempted  of  God; 
for  God  cannot  be  tempted  with  evil,  and  he  himself  tempteth  no  man;  but 
each  man  is  tempted  when  he  is  drawn  away  by  his  own  lust  and  enticed. 
Then  the  lust,  when  it  hath  conceived,  beareth  sin:  and  the  sin,  when  it  is 
full  grown,  bringeth  forth  death. — James  1:12-15. 


8  The  Making  of  a  Nation 

For  the  love  of  God  is  broader 

Than  the  measure  of  man's  mind, 
And  the  heart  of  the  eternal 

Is  most  wonderfully  kind. — Frederick  W.  Faher. 

None  could  enter  into  life  but  those  who  were  in  downright  earnest  and 
unless  they  left  the  wicked  world  behind  them;  for  there  was  only  room  for 
body  and  soul,  but  not  for  body  and  soul  and  sin. — John  Bunyan. 

I. 

The  Nature  of  Sin. 

Henry  Dnimmond  has  said  that  sin  is  a  little  word  that  has 
wandered  out  of  theology  into  life. 

Members  of  a  secret  organization  known  as  the  Thugs  of 
India  feel  at  times  that  it  is  their  solemn  duty  to  strangle  cer- 
tain of  their  fellow  men.  Do  they  thereby  commit  a  sin?  A 
Parsee  believes  that  it  is  wrong  to  light  a  cigar,  for  it  is  a  dese- 
cration of  his  emblem  of  purity  —  fire.  Others  in  the  western 
world  for  very  different  reasons  regard  the  same  act  as  wrong. 
Is  the  lighting  or  smoking  of  a  cigar  a  sin  for  these  classes?  Is 
the  act  necessarily  wrong  in  itself? 

When  a  trained  dog  fails  to  obey  his  master,  does  he  sin? 
Is  man  alone  capable  of  sinning? 

II. 

The  Different  Theories  regarding  the  Origin  of  Sin. 

Many  and  various  have  been  the  definitions  of  sin  and  the 
explanations  of  its  origin.  Most  primitive  peoples  defined  it  as 
failure  to  perform  certain  ceremonial  acts,  or  to  bring  tribute  to 
the  gods.  Morality  and  religion  were  rarely  combined.  The 
Hebrew  people  were  the  first  to  define  right  and  wrong  in  terms 
of  personal  life  and  service.  Sin  as  represented  in  Genesis  3 
was  the  result  of  individual  choice.  It  was  yielding  to  the  com- 
mon rather  than  the  nobler  impulses,  to  desire  rather  than  to 
the  sense  of  duty.  The  temptation  came  from  within  rather 
than  from  without,  and  the  responsibility  of  not  choosing  the 
best  rested  with  the  individual.  The  explanation  is  as  simple 
and  as  true  to  human  experience  to-day  as  in  the  childhood  of 
the  race. 

The  Persian  religion,  on  the  contrary,  conceived  of  the  world 
as  controlled  by  two  hostile  gods,  with  their  hosts  of  attendant 
angels.  One  god,  Ormuzd,  was  the  embodiment  of  light  and 
goodness.  The  other,  Ahriman,  represented  darkness  and  evil. 
They  traced  all  sin  to  the  direct  influence  of  Ahriman  and  the 


Mmi^s  Responsibility  for  His  Acts  9 

evil  spirits  that  attended  him.  During  the  Persian  period  a 
somewhat  similar  explanation  of  the  origin  of  evil  appeared 
in  Jewish  thought.  Satan,  who  in  the  book  of  Job  appears  to 
be  simply  the  prosecuting  attorney  of  heaven,  began  to  be 
thought  of  as  the  enemy  of  man,  until  in  later  times  all  sin  was 
traced  directly  or  indirectly  to  his  influence.  This  was  the 
conception  prevalent  among  the  Puritans.  This  view  tended 
to  r  eh  eve  man  of  personal  responsibility  for  he  was  regarded  as 
the  victim  of  assaults  of  hosts  of  maUgnant  spirits.  Does  your 
knowledge  of  the  heart  of  man  confirm  the  insight  of  the  prophet 
who  speaks  through  the  wonderful  story  of  Genesis  3? 

III. 

The  Origin  of  Sin  according  to  the  Story  in  Genesis  3. 

In  your  judgment  is  the  story  of  the  man  and  the  woman  in 
Genesis  3  a  chapter  from  the  hfe  of  a  certain  man  and  woman, 
or  a  faithful  reflection  of  universal  human  experience?  Most 
of  the  elements  which  are  found  in  the  story  may  hkewise 
be  traced  in  earUer  Semitic  traditions.  The  aim  of  the  prophet 
who  has  given  us  the  story  was,  according  to  the  view  of  certain 
interpreters,  to  present  in  vivid,  concrete  form  the  origin, 
nature,  and  consequences  of  sin.  This  method  of  teaching  was 
similar  to  that  which  Jesus  used,  for  example,  in  the  parable 
of  Dives  and  Lazarus.  The  tree  of  the  knowledge  of  good  and 
evil,  with  the  command  not  to  eat  of  it,  apparently  symbohzes 
temptation.  Is  temptation  necessary  for  man's  moral  develop- 
ment? The  serpent  was  evidently  chosen  because  of  its  reputa- 
tion for  craft  and  treachery.  The  serpent's  words  represent  the 
natural  inclinations  that  were  struggling  in  the  mind  of  the 
woman  against  her  sense  of  duty.  Note  that  in  the  story  the 
temptation  did  not  come  to  man  through  his  apoetite  or  his 
curiosity  or  his  esthetic  sense  but  through  his  wife  whom  God 
had  given  him.  Was  the  man's  act  in  any  way  excusable? 
Strong  men  and  women  often  sin  through  the  influence  of  those 
whom  they  love  and  admire.  Are  they  thereby  excused?  What 
natural  impulses  impelled  the  woman  to  disobey  the  divine 
command?  Were  these  impulses  of  themselves  wrong?  How 
far  did  her  experience  reflect  common  human  experience? 
What  was  the  real  nature  of  her  act?  Was  it  wrong  or  praise- 
worthy for  her  to  desire  knowledge? 

In  what  form  did  temptation  come  to  the  man  in  Genesis 
3?     Does  temptation  appeal  in  a  different  form  to  each  indi- 


10  The  Making  of  a  Nation 

vidual?  The  Hebrew  word  for  sin  (which  means  to  miss  the 
mark  placed  before  each  individual)  vividly  and  aptly  describes 
the  real  natm-e  of  sin.  The  ideal  placed  before  each  individual 
represents  his  sense  of  what  is  right.  If  he  acts  contrary  to 
that  ideal  or  fails  to  strive  to  realize  it,  does  he  sin? 

IV. 

The  Effects  of  Sin  upon  the  Wrong-Doer. 
What  was  the  effect  of  their  consciousness  of  having  disobeyed 
upon  the  man  and  woman  in  the  ancient  story?  Did  they 
beheve  that  they  had  done  wrong,  or  merely  that  they  had  in- 
curred a  penalty?  Does  sin  tend  to  make  cowards  of  men? 
Were  the  feelings  of  shame,  and  the  sense  of  estrangement  in 
the  presence  of  one  who  loved  them,  the  most  tragic  effect 
of  their  sin?  When  a  child  disobeys  a  parent  or  a  friend  wrongs 
a  friend  is  the  sense  of  having  injured  a  loved  one  the  most  pain- 
ful consequence  of  sin?  Was  the  penalty  imposed  on  the  man 
and  woman  the  result  of  a  divine  judgment  or  the  natural  and 
inevitable  effect  of  wrong-doing?  Why  did  the  man  and 
woman  try  to  excuse  their  disobedience?  Was  it  natural?  Was 
it  good  policy?    Was  it  right?    If  not,  why  not? 

V. 

God's  Attitude  toward  the  Sinner. 

Jehovah  in  the  story  evidently  asked  the  man  and  woman  a 
question,  the  answer  to  which  he  already  knew,  in  order  to  give 
them  an  opportunity  to  confess  their  wrong-doing.  Parents  and 
teachers  often  seek  to  give  the  culprit  the  opportunity  to  confess 
his  sin.  What  is  the  attitude  of  the  law  towards  the  criminal 
who  pleads  guilty?  What  is  the  reason  for  this  attitude?  A 
loving  parent  or  even  the  state  might  forgive  an  imrepentant 
sinner,  but  the  effect  of  the  wrong-domg  upon  the  sinner  and 
upon  others  may  still  remain. 

While  the  man  and  woman  remained  conscious  of  their  wrong- 
doing, though  defiant,  to  abide  in  Jehovah's  presence  was  for 
them  intolerable.  Are  toil  and  pain  essential  to  the  moral  de- 
velopment of  sinners  who  refuse  to  confess  their  crime?  Are 
toil  and  pain  in  themselves  curses  or  blessings  to  those  who  have 
done  wrong?  The  picture  in  Genesis  3  clearly  implies  that 
God's  intention  was  not  that  man  should  suffer  but  that  he 
should  enjoy  perfect  health  and  happiness.  Jehovah's  prepara- 
tion of  the  coats  of  skin  for  the  man  and  woman  is  convincing 


Man's  Responsihility  for  His  Acts  11 

evidence  that  his  love  and  care  continued  unremittingly  even 
for  the  wrong  doers.  Modern  psychology  is  making  it  clear 
that  the  effect  of  sin  upon  the  unrepentant  sinner  is  to  increase 
his  inclination  toward  sinning.  But  when  a  man  in  penitence  for 
his  sin  has  turned  toward  God  and  changed  his  relation  to  his 
fellow  men,  God  becomes  to  him  a  new  Bemg  with  a  nearness 
and  intimacy  impossible  before!  May  the  Christian  believe 
that  this  new  sense  of  nearness  and  love  to  God  is  met  by  a  cor- 
responding feeling  on  God's  part?  In  the  light  of  Christian 
experience  is  there  not  every  reason  to  believe  that  God  himself 
also  enters  into  a  new  and  joyous  relationship  with  the  man? 
This  thought  was  evidently  in  the  mind  of  Jesus  when  he  de- 
clared that  there  was  joy  in  heaven  over  one  sinner  that 
repented. 

VI. 

The  Effect  of  Sin  upon  Society. 
Men  are  often  heard  to  remark  that  they  are  willing  to  bear 
the  consequences  of  their  sin.  Is  it  possible  for  any  individual 
to  experience  in  himself  the  entire  result  of  his  wrong-doing? 
In  the  Genesis  story  the  woman's  deliberate  disobedience  would 
seem  to  have  had  very  direct  influence  upon  her  husband. 
Mankind  has  almost  universally  come  to  regard  certain  acts 
as  wrong  and  to  prescribe  definite  modes  of  punishment.  Such 
decisions  have  come  about  not  simply  because  of  the  effect  of 
sin  upon  the  individual  but  more  especially  because  the  sin  of 
the  individual  affects  society.  State  the  different  influences 
that  deter  men  from  sin  and  note  those  which  from  your  experi- 
ence seem  the  strongest. 

Questions  for  Further  Consideration. 

Is  an  act  that  is  wrong  for  one  man  necessarily  a  sin  if  committed  by  an- 
other? Are  men's  tendencies  to  sin  due  to  their  inheritance  or  to  impulses 
which  they  share  in  common  with  brutes,  or  to  influences  that  come  from 
their  environment?  In  the  hght  of  this  discussion  formulate  your  own 
definition  of  sin. 

Is  the  final  test  of  sin  a  man's  consciousness  of  guilt,  or  the  ultimate 
effect  of  his  act  upon  himself,  or  upon  society? 

May  the  woman  in  the  Garden  of  Eden  be  regarded  as  the  prototype  of 
the  modern  scientist?  Are  there  ways  in  which  the  scientist  may  sin  in 
making  his  investigations?     Illustrate.     How  about  vivisection? 

Does  sin  bring  moral  enhghtenment?  Distinguish  between  Jesus'  atti- 
tude toward  sin  and  toward  the  sinner.  What  should  be  our  attitude 
toward  the  sinner? 

If  the  man  and  woman  had  frankly  confessed  their  sin,  what,  by  impli- 
cation, would  have  been  the  effect:  first,  upon  themselves,  and  second, 
upon  the  attitude  and  action  of  God? 


12  The  Making  of  a  Nation 

Does  temptation  to  sin,  as  in  the  case  of  Adam,  often  come  in  the  guise 
of  virtue?     What  is  the  value  of  confession  to  the  sinner?     To  society? 

Subjects  for  Further  Study. 

(1)  The  Babylonian  and  Egyptian  Idea  of  Sm.  Hastings,  Dictionary  of 
the  Bible,  extra  vol.  566-567;  Breasted,  History  of  Egypt,  173-175;  Jastrow, 
Religion  of  the  Babylonians  and  Assyrians,  312-327. 

(2)  Milton's  Interpretation  of  Genesis  3  in  Paradise  Lost. 

(3)  The  Right  and  Wrong  of  the  Attempted  Surrender  of  West  Point 
from  the  Point  of  View  of  Benedict  Arnold,  Andre  and  Washington. 


STUDY  III 
THE  CRIMINAL  AND  HIS  RELATION  TO  SOCIETY. 
The  Story  of  Cain. — Gen.  4: 1-16. 

Parallel  Readings, 
Hist.  Bible,  Vol.  1,  42-46. 
Jenks,  Prin.  of  Pol  1-16. 
August  Drahms,  The  Criminal. 

Now  in  the  course  of  time  it  came  to  pass,  that  Cain  brought  some  of 
the  fruit  of  the  ground  as  an  offering  to  Jehovah.  And  Abel  also  brought 
some  of  the  firsthngs  of  his  flock  and  of  their  fat.  And  Jehovah  looked 
favorably  upon  Abel  and  his  offering:  but  for  Cain  and  his  offering  he  had 
no  regard. 

Therefore,  Cain  was  very  angry  and  his  countenance  fell.  And  Jehovah 
said  to  Cain, 

Why  art  thou  angry? 

And  why  is  thy  countenance  fallen? 

If  thou  doest  weU,  is  there  not  acceptance? 

But  if  thou  doest  not  well. 

Does  not  sin  crouch  at  the  door? 

And  to  thee  shaU  be  its  desire, 

But  thou  shouldst  rule  over  it. 

Then  Cain  said  to  Abel  his  brother,  Let  us  go  into  the  field.  And  while 
they  were  in  the  field,  Cain  rose  up  against  Abel  his  brother  and  slew  him. 

And  when  Jehovah  said  to  Cain,  Where  is  Abel  thy  brother?  he  said,  I 
know  not;  am  I  my  brother's  keeper. — Gen.  4:  3-9  (Hist.  Bible). 

And  the  Scribes  and  the  Pharisees  bring  a  woman  taken  in  adultery; 
and  having  set  her  in  the  midst,  they  say  unto  Jesus,  Teacher,  this  woman 
hath  been  taken  in  adultery,  in  the  very  act.  Now  in  the  law  Moses 
commanded  us  to  stone  such :  what  then  sayest  thou  of  her?  And  this  they 
said  trying  him,  that  they  might  have  whereof  to  accuse  him.  But  Jesus 
stooped  down  and  with  his  finger  wrote  on  the  ground.  And  when  they 
continued  asking  him,  he  hfted  himself,  and  said  unto  them,  He  that  is 
without  sin  among  you,  let  him  first  cast  a  stone  at  her.  And  again  he 
stooped  down  and  with  his  finger  wrote  on  the  ground.     And  they,  when 


The  Criminal  and  His  Relation  to  Society  13 

they  heard  it,  went  out  one  by  one,  beginning  from  the  eldest,  even  unto 
the  last:  and  Jesus  was  left  alone,  and  the  woman,  where  she  was,  in  the 
midst.  And  Jesus  lifted  himself  up  and  said  unto  her,  Woman,  where  are 
they?  Did  no  man  condemn  thee?  And  she  said.  No  man.  Lord.  And 
Jesus  said,  Neither  do  I  condemn  thee.  Go^thy  way;  from  henceforth  sin 
no  more. — Johii  8:3-11. 

Every  experiment  by  multitudes  or  individuals  that  has  a  sensual  or 
selfish  aim  will  fail. — Emerson. 

When  you  meet  one  of  these  men  or  wonaen  be  to  them  a  Divine  man; 
be  to  them  thought  and  virtue;  let  their  timid  aspirations  find  in  you  a 
friend;  let  their  trampled  instincts  be  genially  tempted  out  in  your  atmos- 
phere; let  their  doubts  know  that  you  have  doubted,  and  their  wonder  feel 
that  you  have  wondered. — Emerson. 

But  I  still  have  a  good  heart  and  believe  in  myself  and  fellow  men  and 
the  God  who  made  us  all. — Robert  Louis  Stevenson. 

I. 

The  Meaning  of  the  Story  of  Cain. 

In  Arabia  and  Palestine  to-day,  as  in  the  past,  a  man's  pros- 
perity or  misfortune  is  miiversally  regarded  as  the  evidence  of 
divine  approval  or  disapproval.  Even  Jesus'  disciples  on  seeing 
a  blind  man  by  the  wayside,  raised  the  question:  ''  Did  this  man 
sin  or  his  parents?"  Among  the  Arabs  of  the  desert  the  tribal 
mark,  either  tattooing  or  a  distinctive  way  of  cutting  the  hair, 
insures  the  powerful  protection  of  the  tribe.  Each  tribesman 
is  under  the  most  sacred  obligation  to  protect  the  life  of  a 
member  of  his  tribe,  or  to  avenge,  if  need  be  with  his  own  life- 
blood,  every  injury  done  him.  Without  the  tribal  mark  a  man 
becomes  an  outlaw.  Many  scholars,  therefore,  think  that  the 
mark  placed  upon  Cain  was  not  primarily  a  stigma  proclaiming 
his  guilt,  but  rather  a  token  that  protected  him  from  violence 
at  the  hands  of  Jehovah's  people  and  compelled  them  to  avenge 
any  wrongs  that  might  befall  him. 

In  the  light  of  these  facts  would  it  not  seem  possible  that 
Cain's  character  and  conduct  are  the  reason  why  his  offering 
was  not  accepted? 

What  is  the  meaning  and  purpose  of  Jehovah's  question, 
Where  is  Abel  thy  brother?  Is  it  probable  that  in  the  question, 
Am  I  my  brother's  keeper,  the  writer  intended  to  assert  the 
responsibility  of  society  for  the  acts  of  its  members?  In  China 
where  to-day,  far  more  than  in  the  West,  there  exists  the  re- 
sponsibility of  neighbors,  those  who  fail  to  exert  the  proper  in- 
fluence over  the  character  and  conduct  of  a  criminal  neighbor 


14  The  Making  of  a  Nation 

often  have  their  houses  razed  to  the  ground  and  the  sites  sown 
with  salt.  Is  society  responsible  for  producing  criminals? 
How  far  am  I  personally  responsible  for  my  neighbor's  acts? 

II. 

The  Making  of  a  Criminal. 

Paul  said,  "All  men  have  sinned."  Are  all  men  therefore 
criminals?  What  constitutes  a  criminal?  Was  Cain  a  criminal 
before  he  slew  his  brother?     Legally?     Morally? 

Was  Cain's  motive  in  the  worship  of  God  truly  religious  or 
merely  mercenary?  This  portrait  of  Cain  illustrates  the  fact 
that  formal  religious  worship  does  not  necessarily  deter  a  man 
from  becoming  a  criminal.  Sometimes  men  prominent  in  re- 
ligious work  become  defaulters  or  commit  other  crimes.  Does 
this  story  suggest  the  fundamental  reason  why  great  crimes  are 
sometimes  committed  by  religious  leaders?  The  motive  rather 
than  the  form  is  clearly  the  one  thing  absolutely  essential  in 
religious  worship. 

Was  the  slaying  of  Abel  the  result  simply  of  jealousy  or  a 
sudden  fit  of  anger  or  of  a  gradual  deterioration  of  character? 
Compare  the  gradual  development  of  the  criminal  instincts  in 
Shakespeare's  Macbeth.  Think  of  the  different  influences 
tending  to  make  criminals!  Most  criminals  are  made  before 
they  reach  the  age  of  twenty-one.  The  development  of  the 
criminal  is  the  result  either  of  wrong  education  or  the  lack  of 
right  education.  Parents  by  their  failure  to  guard  carefully 
their  children's  associates  and  to  develop  in  them  habits  of  self- 
control,  respect  for  the  rights  of  others,  and  a  sense  of  social 
and  civic  obligation,  are  perhaps  more  than  any  other  class 
responsible  for  the  growth  of  criminals.  In  what  ways  does 
the  State  through  its  negligence  also  contribute  to  the  making 
of  criminals? 

III. 
The  Criminal's  Attitude  towards  Society. 

Every  criminal  act  is  anti-social.  Few  if  any  criminals 
realize  this  fact.  A  superintendent  of  the  Elmira  Reformatory 
after  years  of  experience  said  that  he  had  never  seen  a  criminal 
who  felt  remorse;  while  criminals  usually  regretted  being  caught, 
they  always  excused  their  crime.  The  criminal  repudiates  his 
social  obligations,  not  acknowledging  the  fact  that  the  basis 
of  all  society  is  the  recognition  of  the  rights  of  others.     The  thief 


The  Criminal  and  His  Relation  to  Society  15 

often  excuses  his  acts  by  asserting  that  society  owes  him  a  living. 
Is  this  position  right  or  do  you  agree  with  the  following  statement? 
*'  The  criterion  of  what  is  for  the  benefit  of  the  community  at 
large  must  be  settled  by  the  commimity  itself,  not  by  an  indi- 
vidual. The  citizen,  then,  may  and  must  do  what  the  commu- 
nity determines  it  is  best  for  him  to  do;  he  must  stand  in  the  fore- 
front of  battle  if  so  ordered.  He  must  not  do  what  the  State 
forbids;  he  may  be  deprived  of  liberty  and  life  if  he  does." — 
Jenks. 

IV. 
The  Ways  in  which  Society  Deals  with  the  Ckiminal. 

Cain's  punishment  was  banishment  rather  than  imprison- 
ment. What  was  the  fate  that  Cain  specially  feared?  Cain 
and  Abel  in  the  original  story,  some  writers  beUeve,  represented 
tribes  (see  Hist.  Bible,  I,  44).  Among  nomadic  peoples  in  the 
early  East,  as  to-day,  the  punishment  of  murder  was  left  to 
the  family  or  tribe  of  the  murdered  man.  Was  this  just  or 
effective?  The  same  crude  method  of  avenging  wrongs  is 
found  in  the  vendetta  of  Italy  and  the  family  feuds  in  certain 
sparsely  settled  regions  in  the  United  States.  The  sm-vival  of 
this  institution  is  to-day  one  of  the  greatest  obstacles  to  civiliza- 
tion in  those  regions.    Why? 

In  most  criminal  legislation  the  chief  emphasis  is  placed  on 
punishment.  For  example,  thieves  are  punished  with  im- 
prisonment. Why?  A  radical  change  in  public  opinion  is  now 
taking  place.  The  prevailing  method  of  dealing  with  crimes 
advocated  by  penologists  to-day  is  the  protection  of  society  if 
possible  by  the  reform  of  the  criminal.  Does  this  method  pro- 
tect society  effectually?  Why  is  it  that  criminals  generally 
prefer  a  definite  term  in  prison  rather  than  an  indefinite  sentence 
with  the  possibility  of  release  in  less  than  half  the  time?  Which 
method  of  treatment  is  best  in  the  end  for  the  wrong-doer? 

It  is  important  to  distinguish  clearly  between  the  private  and 
the  official  attitude  toward  the  criminal.  As  individuals,  who 
cannot  know  the  motives,  we  should  heed  the  maxim  of  Jesus: 
''Judge  not!"  As  pubhc  officials  whose  duty  it  is  to  protect 
society,  we  are  imder  obligation  to  deal  firmly  and  effectively 
with  the  criminal.  What  would  probably  have  been  the  result 
had  Cain  confessed  his  crime?  God  was  far  more  lenient  even 
with  the  unrepentant  Cain  than  were  his  fellow  men.  Did  God, 
however,  remit  Cain's  sentence?     Cain  said,  "  I  shall  become  a 


16  The  Making  of  a  Nation 

fugitive  and  a  wanderer  on  the  face  of  the  earth."  Was  this 
sense  of  being  an  outcast  the  most  painful  element  in  Cain's 
punishment?  All  crime  thus  in  a  sense  brings  its  own  punish- 
ment. If  in  placing  upon  Cain  a  tribal  mark,  thereby  protect- 
ing him  from  being  killed,  God  apparently  aimed  to  give  him 
an  opportunity  to  reform,  the  clear  imph cation  is  that  the  divine 
love  and  care  still  follow  him.  That  love  and  that  care  never 
cease  toward  even  the  most  depraved.  Compare  Jesus'  atti- 
tude toward  the  criminal,  as  illustrated  in  his  ministry  and  es- 
pecially in  his  dealing  with  the  woman  taken  in  adultery.  His 
forgiveness  of  the  woman's  sin  did  not  cancel  the  social  results, 
but  gave  her  a  new  basis  for  right  living  in  the  future.  She 
realized  that  some  one  believed  in  her.  Is  this  one  of  the  most 
important  influences  to-day  in  assisting  weak  men  and  in  re- 
deeming criminals?  Henry  Drummond  when  asked  the  secret 
of  his  success  with  men  said,  "  I  love  men." 


How  TO  Deal  with  Criminals. 

The  purpose  of  criminal  legislation  and  administration  is 
clearly  the  protection  of  society.  The  criminals  are  punished, 
not  for  the  mere  sake  of  the  punishment  or  for  vengeance,  but  to 
deter  them  from  further  crime  or  to  serve  as  a  warning  to  others. 
Only  on  this  accoimt  can  punishment  be  justified. 

To  prove  an  effective  warning  the  punishment  for  crime  should 
be  certain,  prompt  and  just.  For  these  reasons  effective  police, 
upright  judges  and  fair  methods  of  procedure  are  absolutely 
essential.  Efforts  should  be  made  not  to  influence  the  courts  by 
public  opinion,  and  the  pernicious  prejudgment  of  cases  by 
popular  newspapers  should  be  discountenanced. 

The  surest  method  of  stopping  a  criminal's  dangerous  activ- 
ity is  to  reform  him;  to  give  him  a  new  and  absorbing  interest. 
Experience  at  our  best  reformatories  shows  that  with  the  in- 
determinate sentence  a  very  large  majority  of  young  criminals 
can  be  transformed  into  safe  and  useful  citizens.  This  method 
is  both  cheaper  and  more  effective  than  direct  punishment  for 
fixed  terms. 

VI. 
The  Prevention  of  Crime. 

The  best  method  of  dealing  with  crime  is  that  of  prevention. 
The  work  of  protecting  society  against  crime  should  begin  with 


The  Criminal  and  His  Relation  to  Society  17 

arousing  parents  to  the  sense  of  their  responsibilities  and  by 
training  them  thoroughly  in  the  duties  of  parenthood.  Philan- 
thropic agencies,  the  church,  the  schools,  the  State,  may  do 
much  both  by  training  character  and  by  removing  temptation. 
The  maintenance  of  good  economic  conditions,  provision  for 
wholesome  amusements,  improved  sanitation,  all  tend  to  re- 
move pernicious  influences  and  strengthen  the  power  of  resist- 
ance to  temptation.  The  public  press  and  the  theatre,  which 
are  at  times  exceedingly  harmful  agencies,  may  be  and  should  be 
transformed  into  active  moral  forces.  In  furthering  all  these 
refbrm  measures  and  preventive  movements  each  individual 
has  a  personal  responsibility,  and,  as  an  active  citizen,  he  may 
render  most  important  service.  The  home,  the  school,  the 
church  and  the  State,  all  touch  the  individual  on  every  side  and 
create  and  together  control  the  influences  that  make  or  unmake 
character. 

Questions  for  Further  Consideration, 

What  was  the  effect  of  Cain's  anger  upon  his  own  life? 

Gladstone  said,  "I  do  not  have  time  to  hate  anybody." 

In  what  way  do  anger  and  hatred  hamper  one's  greatest  usefulness? 
Do  you  believe  in  the  modern  theories  regarding  the  effect  of  jealousy  and 
hatred  upon  the  body? 

Is  capital  punishment  at  times  a  necessity? 

What  is  the  most  effective  argument  which  can  be  used  to  restore  honor 
and  manhood  to  a  criminal? 

Is  there  any  particular  agency  at  work  in  your  community  to  assist  men 
who  have  committed  crimes? 

Is  the  chief  object  of  punishment  to  avenge  the  wrong,  to  punish  the 
criminal,  to  deter  others  from  committing  similar  crimes,  or  to  reclaim  the 
wrong-doer? 

Subjects  for  Further  Study. 

(1)  The  Effect  of  the  Semitic  Law  of  Blood-revenge  upon  (a)  the  criminal, 
(6)  society  and  (c)  possible  criminals.  Kent,  IsraeVs  Laws  and  Legal 
Precedents,  91,  114-116;  Smith,  Religion  of  the  Semites,  72,  420. 

(2)  Mrs.  BalHngton  Booth's  Work  for  Released  Prisoners.  After 
Prison— What? 

(3)  The  Practical  Effects  of  the  Indeterminate  Sentence.  Reports  of 
the  Prison  Reform  Association. 

(4)  Influence  of  Contract  Prison  Labor.  American  Magazine,  1912, 
Jan.,  Feb.,  Mar.,  April. 


18  The  Making  of  a  Nation 

STUDY  IV 

THE  SURVIVAL  OF  THE  FITTEST. 

The  Story  of  the  Great  Flood. — Gen.  6-8. 

Parallel  Readings. 
Hist.  Bible  I,  52-65. 

Darwin,  Origin  of  Species;  Wallace,  Darwinism;  J.  William  Dawson, 
Modern  Ideas  of  Evolution;  Article  Evolution  in  leading  encyclopedias. 

When  Jehovah  saw  that  the  wickedness  of  man  was  great  in  the  earth,  and 
that  every  pm'pose  in  the  thoughts  of  his  heart  was  only  evil  continually, 
it  was  a  source  of  regret  that  he  had  made  man  on  the  earth  and  it  grieved 
him  to  his  heart.  Therefore  Jehovah  said,  I  will  destroy  from  the  face  of 
the  ground  man  whom  I  have  created,  for  I  regret  that  I  have  made  man- 
kind. 

Then  Jehovah  said  to  Noah,  enter  thou  and  all  thy  house  into  the  ark; 
for  thee  I  have  found  righteous  before  me  in  this  generation. 

And  Noah  did  according  to  all  that  Jehovah  commanded  him. 

Then  Jehovah  destroyed  everything  that  existed  upon  the  face  of  the 
ground,  both  man  and  animals,  and  creeping  things,  and  birds  of  the  heav- 
ens, so  that  they  were  destroyed  from  the  earth;  and  Noah  only  was  left 
and  they  who  were  with  him  in  the  ark. — Gen.  6:  5-8;  7:1,  5,  23  (Hist. 
Bible). 

And  without  faith  it  is  impossible  to  be  well-pleasing  with  God;  for  he 
that  Cometh  to  God  must  believe  that  he  is,  and  that  he  is  a  rewarder  of 
them  that  seek  after  him.  By  faith  Noah,  being  warned  of  God  concern- 
ing things  not  seen  as  yet,  moved  with  godly  fear,  prepared  an  ark  to  the 
saving  of  his  house,  through  which  he  condemned  the  world  and  became 
heir  of  the  righteousness  which  is  according  to  faith. — Heb.  11:6,  7. 

Rare  is  the  man  who  can  look  back  over  his  life  and  not  confess,  at  least 
to  himself,  that  the  things  which  have  made  him  most  a  man  are  the  very 
things  from  which  he  tried  with  all  his  soul  to  escape. 

If  we  would  attain  happiness. 
We  must  first  attain  helpfulness. 

But  stay!  no  age  was  e'er  degenerate 
Unless  men  held  it  at  too  cheap  a  rate, 
For  in  our  Ukeness  still  we  shape  our  fate. 

— Lowell. 
I. 
The  Two  Biblical  Accounts  of  the  Flood. 
Careful  readers  of  Genesis  6-9  have  long  recognized  certain 
difficulties  in  interpreting  the  narrative  as  it  now  stands.     Thus, 
for  example,  in  6 :  20  Noah  is  commanded  to  take  into  the  ark 
two  of  every  kind  of  beast  and  bird;  but  in  7:  2,  3  he  is  com- 
manded to  take  in  seven  of  all  the  clean  beasts  and  birds.     Ac- 
cording to  7: 4,  12  the  flood  came  as  the  result  of  a  forty  days' 


The  Survival  of  the  Fittest  19 

rain;  but  according  to  7: 11  it  was  because  the  fountains  of  the 
great  deep  were  broken  up  and  the  windows  of  heaven  were 
opened.  Again,  according  to  7:  17,  the  flood  continued  on  the 
earth  forty  days;  while  according  to  7 :  24  its  duration  was  a 
hxindred  and  fifty  days. 

These  fundamental  variations  and  the  presence  of  duplicate 
versions  of  the  same  incidents  point,  some  writers  think,  to 
two  originally  distinct  accounts  of  the  flood  which  have  been 
closely  woven  together  by  the  final  editor  of  the  book  of  Genesis. 
When  these  two  accounts  are  disentangled,  they  are  each 
practically  complete  and  apparently  represent  variant  versions 
of  the  same  flood  story.  (See  Hist.  Bible,  I,  53-56,  for  these 
two  parallel  accounts.)  The  one,  known  as  the  prophetic 
version,  was  written,  these  writers  believe,  about  650  B.C. 
It  has  the  flowing,  vivid,  picturesque,  literary  style  and  the 
point  of  view  of  the  prophetic  teacher.  In  this  account  the 
number  seven  prevails.  Seven  of  each  clean  beast  and  bird 
are  taken  into  the  ark  to  provide  food  for  Noah  and  his  family. 
Seven  days  the  waters  rose,  and  at  intervals  of  seven  days  he 
sent  out  a  raven  and  a  dove.  The  flood  from  its  beginning 
to  the  time  when  Noah  disembarked  continued  sixty-eight 
days.  At  the  end,  when  he  had  determined  by  sending  out 
birds  that  the  waters  had  subsided,  he  went  forth  from  the  ark 
and  reared  an  altar  and  offered  sacrifice  to  Jehovah  of  every 
clean  beast  and  bird. 

The  other  and  more  detailed  account  is  apparently  the  sequel 
of  the  late  priestly  narratives  found  in  Genesis  1  and  5.  The 
style  is  that  of  a  legal  writer — formal,  exact  and  repetitious.  In 
this  account  only  two  of  each  kind  of  beast  and  bird  are  taken 
into  the  ark.  The  flood  lasts  for  over  a  year  and  is  universal, 
covering  even  the  tops  of  the  highest  mountains.  No  animals 
are  sacrificed,  for  according  to  the  priestly  writer  this  custom  was 
first  instituted  by  Moses.  When  the  flood  subsides,  however, 
a  covenant  is  concluded  and  is  sealed  by  the  rainbow  in  accord- 
ance with  which  man's  commission  to  rule  over  all  other  living 
things  is  renewed  and  divine  permission  is  given  to  each  to 
eat  of  the  flesh  of  animals,  provided  only  that  men  carefully 
abstain  from  eating  the  blood.  This  later  account  is  dated  by 
this  group  of  modem  Biblical  scholars  about  400  b.c. 


20  The  Making  of  a  Nation 

II. 

The  Corresponding  Babylonian  Flood  Stories. 

Closely  parallel  to  these  two  variant  Biblical  accounts  of  the 
flood  are  the  two  Babylonian  versions,  which  have  fortu- 
nately been  almost  wholly  recovered.  The  older  Babylonian 
account  is  found  in  the  eleventh  tablet  of  the  Gilgamesh  epic, 
which  comes  from  the  library  of  Asshurbanipal.  This  great 
conqueror  lived  contemporaneously  with  Manasseh  during 
whose  reign  Assyrian  influence  was  paramomit  in  the  kingdom 
of  Judah.  In  his  quest  for  healing  and  immortality  Gilgamesh 
reached  the  abode  of  the  Babylonian  hero  of  the  flood.  In 
response  to  Gilgamesh's  question  as  to  how  he,  a  mortal,  attained 
immortality  the  Babylonian  Noah  recounts  the  story  of  the 
flood.  It  was  brought  about  by  the  Babylonian  gods  in  order 
to  destroy  the  city  of  Shurippak,  situated  on  the  banks  of  the 
Euphrates.  The  god  Ea  gave  the  warning  to  his  worshipper, 
the  hero  of  the  flood,  and  conunanded  him : 

Construct  a  house,  build  a  ship. 

Leave  goods,  look  after  life. 

Forsake  possessions,  and  save  life. 

Cause  all  kinds  of  living  things  to  go  up  into  the  ship. 

The  ship  which  thou  shalt  build,  — 

Exact  shall  be  its  dimensions: 

Its  breadth  shall  equal  its  length; 

On  the  great  deep  launch  it. 

I  understood  and  said  to  Ea,  my  lord: 

"  Behold,  my  lord,  what  thou  hast  commanded, 

I  have  reverently  received  and  will  carry  out." 

A  detailed  account  then  follows  of  the  building  of  the  ark. 
Its  dimensions  were  one  hundred  and  twenty  cubits  in  each 
direction.  It  was  built  in  six  stories,  each  of  which  was  divided 
into  nine  parts.  Plentiful  provisions  were  next  carried  on  board 
and  a  great  feast  was  held  to  commemorate  the  completion  of 
the  ark.  After  carrying  on  board  his  treasures  of  silver  and 
gold  he  adds: 

All  the  living  creatures  of  all  kinds  I  loaded  on  it. 

I  brought  on  board  my  family  and  household; 

Cattle  of  the  field,  beasts  of  the  field,  the  craftsmen. 

All  of  them  I  brought  on  board. 

In  the  evening  at  the  command  of  the  god  Shamash  the  rains 
began  to  descend.     Then  the  Babylonian  Noah  entered  the 


The  Survival  of  the  Fittest  21 

ship  and  closed  the  door  and  entrusted  the  great  house  with  its 
contents  to  the  captain.  The  description  of  the  tempest  that 
follows  is  exceedingly  vivid  and  picturesque. 

When  the  first  light  of  dawn  shone  forth, 
There  rose  from  the  horizon  a  dark  cloud,  within  which  Adad 
thmidered, 

Nabu  and  Marduk  marched  at  the  front, 

The  heralds  passed  over  mountains  and  land; 

Nergal  tore  out  the  ship's  mast, 

Ninib  advanced,  following  up  the  attack. 

The  spirits  of  earth  raised  torches, 

With  their  sheen  they  hghted  up  the  world. 

Adad's  tempest  reached  to  heaven, 

And  all  light  was  changed  to  darkness. 

So  great  was  the  havoc  wrought  by  the  storm  that 

The  gods  bowed  down,  sat  there  weeping. 

Close  pressed  together  were  their  lips. 

For  six  days  and  nights  the  storm  raged,  but  on  the  seventh 
day  it  subsided  and  the  flood  began  to  abate.  Of  the  race  of 
mortals,  however,  every  voice  was  hushed.  At  last  the  ship 
approached  the  mountain  Nisir  which  lay  on  the  northern 
horizon,  as  viewed  from  the  Tigris-Euphrates  valley.  Here 
the  ship  grounded.     Then, 

When  the  seventh  day  arrived, 

I  sent  forth  a  dove  and  let  it  loose, 

The  dove  went  forth,  but  came  back; 

Because  it  found  no  resting-place,  it  returned: 

Then  I  sent  forth  a  swallow,  but  it  came  back; 

Because  it  found  no  resting-place,  it  returned. 

Then  I  sent  forth  a  raven  and  let  it  loose, 

The  raven  went  forth  and  saw  that  the  waters  had  decreased; 

It  fed,  it  waded,  it  croaked,  but  did  not  return. 

Then  I  sent  forth  everything  in  all  directions,  and  offered  a 
sacrifice, 

I  made  an  offering  of  incense  on  the  highest  peak  of  the  moun- 
tain. 

Seven  and  seven  bowls  I  placed  there, 

And  over  them  I  poured  out  calamus,  cedar  wood  and  fra- 
grant herbs. 

The  gods  inhaled  the  odor, 


22  The  Making  of  a  Nation 

The  gods  inhaled  the  sweet  odor, 
The  gods  gathered  hke  flies  above  the  sacrifice. 
At  the  intercession  of  Ea,  the  Babylonian  Noah  and  his  wife 
were  granted  immortahty  and  permitted  'Ho  dwell  in  the  dis- 
tance at  the  confluence  of  the  streams." 

A  later  version  of  the  same  Babylonian  flood  story  is  quoted 
by  Eusebius  from  the  writings  of  the  Chaldean  priest  Berossus 
who  Hved  about  the  fourth  century  b.c.  According  to  this 
version  the  god  Kronos  appeared  in  a  dream  to  Xisuthros,  the 
hero,  who,  like  Noah  in  the  priestly  account,  was  the  last  of  the 
ten  ancient  Babylonian  kings.  At  the  command  of  the  god 
he  built  a  great  ship  fifteen  stadia  long  and  two  in  width.  Into 
this  he  took  not  only  his  family  and  provisions,  but  quadrupeds 
and  birds  of  all  kinds.  When  the  flood  began  to  recede,  he 
sent  out  a  bird,  which  quickly  returned.  After  a  few  days  he 
sent  forth  another  bird,  which  returned  with  mud  on  its  feet. 
When  the  third  bird  failed  to  return,  he  took  off  the  cover  of  the 
ship  and  found  that  it  had  stranded  on  a  mountain  of  Armenia. 
The  mountain  in  the  Biblical  account  is  identified  with  Mount 
Ararat.  Disembarking,  the  Babylonian  Noah  kissed  the  earth 
and,  after  building  an  altar,  offered  a  sacrifice  to  the  gods. 

Thus  the  variations  between  the  older  and  later  Babylonian 
accounts  of  the  flood  correspond  in  general  to  those  that  have 
been  already  noted  in  the  Biblical  versions.  Which  Biblical 
account  does  the  earliest  Babylonian  narrative  resemble  most 
closely?  In  what  details  do  they  agree?  Are  these  coincidences 
merely  accidental  or  do  they  point  possibly  to  a  common 
tradition?  How  far  do  the  later  Biblical  and  Babylonian 
accounts  agree?  What  is  the  significance  of  these  points  of 
agreement? 

III. 
History  of  the  Biblical  Flood  Stories. 

On  the  basis  of  the  preceding  comparisons  some  writers  attempt 
to  trace  tentatively  the  history  of  the  flood  tradition  current 
among  the  peoples  of  southwestern  Asia.  A  fragment  of  the  Baby- 
lonian flood  story,  coming  from  at  least  as  early  as  2000  B.C., 
has  recently  been  discovered.  The  probability  is  that  the  tradi- 
tion goes  back  to  the  earliest  beginnings  of  Babylonian  history. 
The  setting  of  the  Biblical  accounts  of  the  flood  is  also  the  Tigris- 
Euphrates  valley  rather  than  Palestine.  The  description  of  the 
construction  of  the  ark  in  Genesis  6: 14-16  is  not  only  closely 


The  Survival  of  the  Fittest  23 

parallel  to  that  found  in  the  Babylonian  account,  but  the 
method  —  the  smearing  of  the  ark  within  and  without  with 
bitumen  —  is  pecuUar  to  the  Tigris-Euphrates  valley.  Many 
scholars  believe,  therefore,  that  Babylonia  was  the  original 
home  of  the  Biblical  flood  story. 

Its  exact  origin,  however,  is  not  so  certain.  Many  of  its 
details  were  doubtless  suggested  by  the  annual  floods  and 
fogs  which  inundate  that  famous  valley  and  recall  the  primeval 
chaos  so  vividly  pictured  in  the  corresponding  Babylonian 
story  of  the  creation.  It  may  have  been  based  on  the  remem- 
brances of  a  great  local  inundation,  possibly  due  to  the  sub- 
sidence of  great  areas  of  land.  In  the  earliest  Hebrew  records 
there  is  no  trace  oi  this  tradition,  although  it  may  have  been 
known  to  the  Aramean  ancestors  of  the  Hebrews.  The  literary 
evidence,  however,  suggests  that  it  was  first  brought  to  Pales- 
tine by  the  Assyrians.  During  the  reactionary  reign  of  Manas- 
seh,  Assyrian  customs  and  Baylonian  ideas,  which  these 
conquerors  had  inherited,  inundated  Judah.  Even  in  the 
temple  at  Jerusalem  the  Babylonians'  gods,  the  host  of  heaven, 
were  worshipped  by  certain  of  the  Hebrews.  The  few  liter- 
ary inscriptions  which  come  from  this  period,  those  found  in 
the  mound  at  Gezer,  are  written  in  the  Assyrian  script  and  con- 
tain the  names  of  Assyrian  officials. 

Later  when  the  Jewish  exiles  were  carried  to  Babylonia,  they 
naturally  came  into  contact  again  with  the  Babylonian  account 
of  the  flood,  but  in  its  later  form,  as  the  comparisons  already  in- 
stituted clearly  indicate.  It  is  thus  possible,  these  scholars  be- 
lieve, to  trace,  in  outline  at  least,  the  literary  history  of  the 
Semitic  flood  story  in  its  various  transformations  through  a 
period  of  nearly  two  thousand  years. 

IV. 

Aim  of  the  Biblical  Writers  in  Recounting  the 
Flood  Story. 
The  practical  question  which  at  once  suggests  itself  is, 
What  place  or  right  has  this  ancient  Semitic  tradition,  if  such 
it  is,  among  the  Bibhcal  narratives?  At  best  the  historical 
data  which  it  preserves  are  exceedingly  small  and  of  doubtful 
value.  Is  it  possible  that  the  prophetic  and  priestly  historians 
found  these  stories  on  the  lips  of  the  people  and  sought  in  this 
heroic  way  to  divest  them  of  their  pol3i:heistic  form  and,  in 
certain  respects,  immoral  implications?    A  minute  comparison 


24  The  Making  of  a  Nation 

of  the  Babylonian  and  Biblical  accounts  indicates  that  this 
may  perhaps  be  precisely  what  has  been  done;  but  the  majestic, 
just  God  of  the  Biblical  narratives  is  far  removed  from  the 
capricious,  intriguing  gods  of  the  Babylonian  tradition,  who 
hang  Uke  flies  over  the  battlements  of  heaven,  stupefied  with 
terror  because  of  the  destruction  which  they  had  wrought. 

Each  of  the  Biblical  narrators  seems  to  be  seeking  also  by 
means  of  these  illustrations  to  teach  certain  universal  moral  and 
religious  truths.  In  this  respect  the  two  variant  Biblical  narra- 
tives are  in  perfect  agreement.  The  destruction  of  mankind 
came  not  as  the  fiat  of  an  arbitrary  Deity,  but  because  of  the 
purpose  which  God  had  before  him  in  the  work  of  creation,  and 
because  that  purpose  was  good.  Men  by  their  sins  and  wilful 
failure  to  observe  his  benign  laws  were  thwarting  that  purpose. 
Hence  in  accord  with  the  just  laws  of  the  universe  their  destruc- 
tion was  unavoidable,  and  it  came  even  as  effect  follows  cause. 
On  the  other  hand,  these  ancient  teachers  taught  with  inimitable 
skill  that  God  would  not  destroy  that  which  was  worthy  of 
preservation. 

In  each  of  the  accounts  the  character  of  Noah  stands  in  strik- 
ing contrast  with  those  of  his  contemporaries.  The  story  as  told 
is  not  merely  an  illustration  of  the  truth  that  righteousness 
brings  its  just  reward,  but  of  the  profounder  principle  that  it 
is  the  morally  fit  who  survive.  In  both  of  the  versions  Noah  in 
a  very  true  sense  represents  the  beginning  of  a  new  creation: 
he  is  the  traditional  father  of  a  better  race.  To  him  are  given  the 
promises  which  God  was  eager  to  realize  in  the  life  of  humanity. 
In  the  poetic  fancy  of  the  ancient  East  even  the  resplendent 
rainbow,  which  proclaimed  the  return  of  the  sun  after  the 
storm,  was  truly  interpreted  as  evidence  of  God's  fatherly  love 
and  care  for  his  children.  In  the  light  of  these  profound  reli- 
gious teachings  may  any  one  reasonably  question  the  right  of 
these  stories  to  a  place  in  the  Bible?  Did  not  Jesus  himself 
frequently  use  illustrations  drawn  from  earlier  history  or  from 
nature  to  make  clear  his  teachings?  Is  it  not  evidence  of  super- 
lative teaching  skill  to  use  that  which  is  famihar  and,  therefore, 
of  interest  to  those  taught,  in  order  to  inculcate  the  deeper 
moral  and  religious  truths  of  life? 

V. 
Survival  of  the  Fittest  in  the  Natural  World. 

It  is  interesting  and  illuminating  to  note  how  the  ancient 
Hebrew  prophets  in  their  religious  teaching  forecast  the  dis- 


The  Survival  of  the  Fittest  25 

coveries  and  scientific  methods  of  our  day.  This  was  because 
they  had  grasped  universal  principles. 

Since  the  memorable  evening  in  July,  1858,  in  which  the  views 
of  Darwin  and  Wallace  on  the  principles  of  variation  and  selec- 
tion in  the  natural  world  were  sent  to  the  Linnsean  Society  in 
London,  the  leading  scientists  have  laid  great  stress  upon  the 
doctrine  of  the  survival  of  the  "fittest"  as  the  true  explanation 
of  progress  in  the  natural  world.  It  was  apparently  made  clear 
by  Darwin,  and  supported  by  sufficient  evidence,  that  ''any 
being,  if  it  vary  however  slightly,  in  any  manner  profitable  to 
itself,  under  the  complex  and  somewhat  varying  conditions  of 
life,  will  have  a  better  chance  of  surviving,  and  thus  be  naturally 
selected." 

This  principle,  since  that  day,  has  been  thoroughly  worked 
out  in  practically  all  the  important  fields  of  both  the  plant  and 
animal  world.  Moreover,  the  doctrine  of  evolution,  dependent 
upon  this  principle,  has  exerted  so  great  an  influence  upon  the 
process  of  investigation  and  thinking  in  all  fields  of  activity 
that  the  resulting  change  in  method  has  amounted  to  a  revolu- 
tion. The  principle  is  applied  not  only  in  the  field  of  biology, 
but  also  in  the  realm  of  astronomy,  where  we  study  the  evolu- 
tion of  worlds,  and  in  psychology,  history,  social  science,  where 
we  speak  of  the  development  of  human  traits  and  of  the  growth 
of  economic,  political  and  social  institutions. 

It  is  necessary  to  remember  in  applying  such'  a  brief  state- 
ment of  a  principle,  that  the  words  are  used  in  a  highly  technical 
sense.  The  word  ''fittest"  by  no  means  need  imply  the  best 
from  the  point  of  view  of  beauty  or  strength  or  usefulness  in 
nature;  nor  does  it  necessarily  mean,  in  reference  to  society, 
best  from  the  point  of  view  of  morals  or  a  higher  civilization. 
Rather  the  "fittest"  means  the  being  best  adapted  to  the  con- 
ditions under  which  it  is  living,  or  to  its  environment.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  it  is  the  general  opinion  that  in  practically  all 
fields  this  principle  works  toward  progress  in  the  highest  and 
best  sense ;  but  it  is  always  a  matter  for  specific  study  as  well  as  of 
great  scientific  interest  and  importance,  to  determine  where  and 
how  the  variation  and  the  corresponding  selection  tend  to  pro- 
mote the  morally  good.  Especially  is  this  true  in  the  study 
of  society,  where  we  should  endeavor  to  see  whether  or  not  the 
"fittest"  means  also  the  highest  from  the  moral  and  religious 
point  of  view. 


26  The  Making  of  a  Nation 

The  story  of  the  flood  gives  us  a  most  interesting  example  of 
the  way  in  which  the  ancient  Hebrews  looked  upon  such  a  pro- 
cess of  selection  in  the  moral  and  religious  world  and  taught 
it  as  a  divine  principle.  It  is,  therefore,  one  of  the  most  sug- 
gestive and  interesting  of  the  writings  of  the  early  Israelites. 

VI. 

The  Survival  of  the  Fittest  in  Social  and  Political  Life. 

From  our  modem  point  of  view,  the  ancient  Hebrew  writers 
had  a  far  deeper  knowledge  of  moral  and  religious  questions  than 
of  natural  science.  They  had  a  far  keener  sense  of  what  was 
socially  beneficial  than  of  what  was  scientifically  true.  How- 
ever we  may  estimate  their  knowledge  of  geology  and  biology, 
we  must  grant  that  their  beliefs  regarding  the  good  and  ill 
effects  of  human  action  have  in  them  much  that  is  miiversally 
true,  even  though  we  may  not  follow  them  throughout  in  their 
theories  of  divine  wrath  and  immediate  earthly  punishment 
of  the  wicked. 

But  is  it  not  true  almost  invariably,  if  we  look  at  social 
questions  of  every  kind  in  a  comprehensive  way,  that  the  sur- 
vival of  the  fittest  means  the  survival  of  the  morally  best?  That 
the  rehgion  which  endures  is  of  the  highest  type?  Business 
success  in  the  long  run,  is  so  strongly  based  upon  mutual  confi- 
dence and  trust,  that,  especially  in  these  later  days  of  credit 
organization,  the  dishonest  man  or  even  the  tricky  man  cannot 
prosper  long.  A  sales  manager  of  a  prominent  institution  said 
lately  that  the  chief  difficulty  that  he  had  with  his  men  was  to 
make  them  always  tell  the  truth.  For  the  sake  of  making  an  im- 
portant sale  they  were  often  incHned  to  misrepresent  his  goods. 
''But  nothing,"  he  added,  ''will  so  surely  kill  all  business  as  mis- 
representation." Even  a  gambhng  book-maker  on  the  race 
tracks  in  New  York,  before  such  work  was  forbidden  by  law, 
is  said  to  have  proudly  claimed  that  absolute  justice  and 
honesty  toward  his  customers  was  essential  to  his  success  and 
had  therefore  become  the  rule  of  his  life.  Although  it  is  some- 
times said  that  the  man  who  guides  his  life  by  the  maxim, 
"  Honesty  is  the  best  policy,"  is  in  reality  not  honest  at  heart, 
it  must  nevertheless  be  granted  that  in  business  the  survival 
of  the  fittest  means  the  survival  of  the  most  honest  business  man. 

It  may  perhaps  have  been  true  in  the  days  of  Machiavelli 
that  cruelty  and  treachery  would  aid  the  unscrupulous  petty 
despot  of  Italy  to  secure  and  at  times  to  maintain  his  dukedom; 


The  Survival  of  the  Fittest  27 

but  certainly  in  modern  days,  when  in  all  civilized  countries 
permanently  prosperous  government  is  based  ultimately  upon 
the  will  of  the  people,  the  successful  ruler  can  no  longer  be 
treacherous  and  cruel.  Even  among  our  so-called  *' spoils'* 
politicians  and  corrupt  bosses,  who  hold  their  positions  by  play- 
ing upon  the  selfishness  of  their  followers  and  the  ignorance  and 
apathy  of  the  public,  there  must  be  rigid  faithfulness  to  prom- 
ises, and,  at  any  rate,  the  appearance  of  promoting  the  public 
welfare.     Otherwise  their  term  of  power  is  short. 

If  we  look  back  through  the  history  of  modern  times,  we  shall 
find  that  the  statesmen  who  rank  high  among  the  successful 
rulers  of  their  countries  are  men  of  unselfish  patriotism,  and  al- 
most invariably  men  of  personal  uprightness  and  morality,  and 
usually  of  deep  religious  feeling.  Think  over  the  names  of  the 
great  men  of  the  United  States,  and  note  their  characters. 
Pick  out  the  leading  statesmen  of  the  last  half  century  in  Eng- 
land, Germany  and  Italy.  Do  they  not  all  stand  for  unselfish, 
patriotic  purpose  in  their  actions,  and  in  character  for  indi- 
vidual honor  and  integrity? 

The  same  is  true  in  our  social  intercourse.  Brilliancy  of 
intellect,  however  important  in  many  fields  of  activity,  counts 
for  relatively  little  in  home  and  social  life,  if  not  accompanied 
by  graciousness  of  manner,  kindness  of  heart,  uprightness  of 
character.  It  may  sometimes  seem  that  the  brilliant  rascal 
succeeds,  that  the  unscrupulous  business  man  becomes  rich, 
and  that  the  hjrpocrite  prospers  through  his  h^Tpocrisy.  If  all 
society  were  made  up  of  men  of  these  low  moral  types,  would 
such  cases  perhaps  be  more  often  found  than  now?  In  a  society 
of  hypocrites,  would  the  fittest  for  survival  be  the  most  skilful 
deceiver?  Or,  even  there,  would  the  adage,  ''There  must  be 
honor  among  thieves,"  hold,  when  it  came  to  permanent 
organization?  But,  whatever  your  answer,  society  fortunately 
is  not  made  up  of  hypocrites  or  rascals  of  any  kind.  With  all 
the  weakness  of  human  nature  found  in  every  society,  the 
growing  success  of  the  rule  of  the  people  throughout  the  world 
proves  that  fundamentally  men  and  women  are  honest  and  true. 
Generally  common  human  nature  is  for  the  right.  Almost 
universally,  if  a  mooted  question  touching  morals  can  be  put 
simply  and  squarely  before  the  people,  they  will  see  and  choose 
the  right. 

Fortunate  it  is  for  the  world  that  the  lessons  taught  by  the 
early  Hebrew  writers  regarding  the  survival  of  the  moral  and 


28  The  Making  of  a  Nation 

upright  are  true,  and  that  good  sense  and  religion  both  agree 
that  in  the  long  run,  honor  and  virtue  and  righteousness  not 
only  pay  the  individual,  but  are  essential  to  the  prosperity 
of  a  nation. 

Questions  for  Further  Consideration. 

Had  most  primitive  peoples  a  tradition  regarding  the  flood?  How  do 
you  explain  the  striking  points  of  similarity  between  the  flood  stories  of 
peoples  far  removed  from  each  other? 

Is  there  geological  evidence  that  the  earth,  during  human  history,  has 
been  completely  inundated? 

WTiat  do  you  mean  by  a  calamity?  Is  it  a  mere  accident,  or  an  essential 
factor  in  the  reahzation  of  the  divine  purpose  in  human  history? 

Are  appaUing  calamities,  hke  floods  and  earthquakes,  the  result  of  the 
working  out  of  natural  laws?  Are  they  unmitigated  evils?  Were  the 
floods  in  China  and  the  plagues  in  India,  which  destroyed  millions  of  hves, 
seemingly  essential  to  the  weKare  of  the  surviving  inhabitants  of  those 
overpopulated  lands? 

What  were  the  effects  of  the  Chicago  fire  and  the  San  Francisco  earth- 
quake upon  these  cities?  How  far  was  the  development  of  the  modern 
commission  form  of  city  government  one  of  the  direct  results  of  the  Galves- 
ton flood? 

To  what  extent  is  the  modem  progress  in  sanitation  due  to  natural 
calamities?     What  calamities? 

Is  a  great  calamity  often  necessary  to  arouse  the  inhabitants  of  a  city  or 
nation  to  the  development  of  their  resources  and  to  the  reahzation  of  their 
highest  possibihties?     What  illustrations  can  you  cite? 

How  do  changes  in  the  environment  of  men  affect  the  moral  quality  of 
their  acts?  How  do  circumstances  affect  the  kind  of  act  that  will  be  suc- 
cessful? During  the  Chinese  revolution  of  1912  in  Peking  and  Nanking, 
looting  leaders  of  mobs  and  plundering  soldiers  when  captured  were 
promptly  decapitated  without  trial.  Was  such  an  act  right?  Was  it 
necessary?  What  conditions  would  justify  such  an  act  in  the  United 
States?  Would  the  same  act  tend  equally  to  preserve  the  government  in 
both  countries? 

Subjects  for  Further  Study. 

(1)  Flood  Stories  among  Primitive  Peoples.  Worcester,  Genesis  361- 
373;  Hastings,  Did.  of  Bible  Vol.  II,  18-22;  Extra  Vol.  181-182;  Encyc. 
Brit. 

(2)  The  Scientific  Basis  of  the  Biblical  Account  of  the  Flood.  Ryle, 
Early  Narratives  of  Gen.  112-113;  Davis,  Gen.  and  Semitic  Traditions  130- 
131 ;  Driver,  Genesis  82-83,  99 ;  Sollas,  Age  of  the  Earth,  316  ff . 

(3)  Compare  the  treatment  accorded  their  rivals  and  competitors  for 
power  in  their  various  fields  by  the  following  persons:  Solomon,  Caesar 
Borgia,  the  late  Empress  Dowager  of  China  (Tz'u-hsi),  Bismarck,  the 
great  poUtical  leaders  of  today  in  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States  and 
the  modern  combinations  of  capital  known  as  trusts. 

I  Kings  1;  MachiaveUi,  The  Prince;  Douglas,  Europe  and  the  Far  East, 
Ch.  17. 

Did  these  different  methods  under  the  special  circumstances  result  in 
the  survival  of  the  fittest?    The  fittest  morally? 


The  Pioneer^ s  Influence  upon  a  Nation's  Ideals  29 

STUDY   V 

THE    PIONEER'S    INFLUENCE    UPON    A 
NATION'S    IDEALS. 

Abraham,   the  Traditional  Father  of  His   Race. — 
Gen.  12: 1-8;  13: 1-13;  16: 18,  19;  21:  7;  22: 1-19. 

Parallel  Readings. 
Hist.  Bible  I,  73-94. 
Prin  of  Pol,  160-175. 

Jehovah  said  to  Abraham,  Go  forth  from  thy  country,  and  from  thy 
kindred,  and  from  thy  father's  house,  to  the  land  that  I  wiU  show  thee,  that 
I  may  make  of  thee  a  great  nation;  and  I  will  surely  bless  thee,  and  make  thy 
name  great,  so  that  thou  shalt  be  a  blessing.  I  will  also  bless  them  that 
bless  thee,  and  him  that  curseth  thee  will  I  curse,  so  that  aU  the  families 
of  the  earth  shall  ask  for  themselves  a  blessing  like  thine  own.  So  Abra- 
ham went  forth,  as  Jehovah  had  commanded  him. — Gen.  12:1-4.  {Hist. 
Bible.) 

By  faith  Abraham  when  he  was  called,  obeyed  to  go  out  into  a  place 
which  he  was  to  receive  for  an  inheritance;  and  he  went  out  not  knowing 
whither  he  went.  _  By  faith  he  became  a  sojourner  in  the  land  of  promise 
as  in  a  land  not  his  own,  dwelling  in  tents,  with  Isaac  and  Jacob,  the  heirs 
with  him  of  the  same  promise;  for  he  looked  for  the  city  which  hath  founda- 
tions, whose  builder  and  maker  is  God. — Heb.  11:  8-10. 

He  that  findeth  his  life  shall  lose  it;  and  he  that  loseth  his  life  for  my  sake 
shall  find  it.— Matt.  10: 39. 

I. 

The  Prophetic  Stories  about  Abraham. 
Many  Biblical  scholars  claim  that  the  data  point  to  variant 
versions  of  the  different  stories  about  Abraham.  Thus,  for 
example,  there  are  two  accounts  of  his  deceptions  regarding 
Sarah,  one  in  12:9  —  13:1,  and  the  other  in  20:1-17.  The  old- 
est version  of  the  story  they  beheve  is  found  in  26:1-14  and  is 
told  not  of  Abraham  but  of  Isaac,  whose  character  it  fits  far 
more  consistently.  Similarly  there  are  three  accounts  of  the 
covenant  with  Abimelech  (Gen.  21:22-31,  21:25-34,  and  26: 
15-33).  The  two  accounts  of  the  expulsion  of  Hagar  and  the 
birth  of  Ishmael,  in  Genesis  16: 1-16  and  21: 1-20  differ  rather 
widely  in  details.  In  one  account  Hagar  is  expelled  and  Ishmael 
is  born  after  the  birth  of  Isaac,  and  in  the  other  before  that 
event.  Do  these  variant  versions  indicate  that  they  were 
drawn  from  different  groups  of  narratives?  The  differences  in 
detail  are  in  general  closely  parallel  to  those  which  the  New 
Testament  student  finds  in  the  different  accounts  of  the  same 


30  The  Making  of  a  Nation 

events  or  teachings  in  the  life  of  Jesus.  They  suggest  to  many 
that  the  author  of  the  book  of  Genesis  was  eager  to  preserve 
each  and  every  story  regarding  Abraham.  Instead,  however,  of 
preserving  intact  the  different  groups  of  stories,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  Gospels,  they  have  been  combined  with  great  skill. 
Sometimes,  as  in  the  case  of  the  expulsion  of  Hagar,  the  two 
versions  are  introduced  at  different  points  in  the  life  of  the 
patriarch.  More  commonly  the  two  or  more  versions  are 
closely  interwoven,  giving  a  composite  narrative  that  closely 
resembles  Tatian's  Diatessaron  which  was  one  continuous 
narrative  of  the  life  and  teachings  of  Jesus,  based  on  quotations 
from  each  of  the  four  Gospels.  Fortunately,  if  this  theory  is 
right,  the  group  of  stories  most  fully  quoted  and  therefore  best 
preserved  is  the  early  Judean  prophetic  narratives.  When 
these  are  separated  from  the  later  parallels  they  give  a  mar- 
velously  complete  and  consistent  portrait  of  Abraham. 

II. 

The  Meaning  of  the  Early  Prophetic  Stories 
ABOUT  Abraham. 
Read  the  prophetic  stories  regarding  Abraham  (Hist  Bible  I, 
73,  74,  79-81,  84-87,  90-92).  Are  these  stories  to  be  regarded 
simply  as  chapters  from  the  biography  of  the  early  ancestor  of 
the  Hebrews  or,  like  the  story  of  the  Garden  of  Eden,  do  they 
have  a  deeper,  a  more  universal  moral  and  rehgious  significance? 
Back  of  the  story  of  Abraham's  call  and  settlement  in  Canaan 
clearly  lies  the  historic  fact  that  the  ancestors  of  the  Hebrews 
as  nomads  migrated  from  the  land  of  Aram  to  seek  for  them- 
selves and  their  descendants  a  permanent  home  in  the  land  of 
Canaan.  Abraham,  whose  name  in  Hebrew  means,  ^'Exalted 
Father,"  or  as  it  was  later  interpreted, '' Father  of  a  Multitude,'^ 
naturally  represents  this  historic  movement,  but  the  story 
of  his  call  and  settlement  in  Canaan  has  a  larger  meaning 
and  value.  It  simply  and  vividly  illustrates  the  eternal  truths 
that  (1)  God  guides  those  who  will  be  guided.  (2)  He  reveals 
himself  alone  to  those  who  seek  a  revelation.  (3)  His  revela- 
tions come  along  the  path  of  duty  and  are  confined  to  no 
place  or  land.  (4)  For  those  who  will  be  led  by  him  God 
has  in  store  a  noble  destiny.  (5)  Blessed  are  the  peace- 
makers for  they  shall  be  called  the  children  of  God.  (6) 
Blessed  are  the  meek  for  they  shall  inherit  the  earth.  Thus 
this  marvelous  story  presents  certain  of  the  noblest  fruits  of 


The  Pioneer's  Influence  upon  a  Nation's  Ideals  31 

Israel's  spiritual  experiences.  Incidentally  it  also  deals  with  the 
relationship  between  the  Hebrews  and  their  neighbors,  the  Moab- 
ites,  across  the  Jordan  and  the  Dead  Sea,  for  Lot  in  these  earlier 
stories  stands  as  the  traditional  ancestor  of  the  Moabites  and 
Ammonites.  It  is  evident  that,  like  the  opening  narratives 
of  Genesis,  this  story  aimed  to  explain  existing  conditions,  as 
well  as  to  illustrate  the  deeper  truths  of  life. 

Similarly  the  story  of  the  expulsion  of  Hagar,  it  is  thought, 
aims  primarily  to  explain  the  origin  of  Israel's  foes,  the  no- 
madic Ishmaelites,  who  Hved  south  of  Canaan.  In  the  inscrip- 
tions of  the  Assyrian  king  Sennacherib,  Hargaranu  is  the  name 
of  an  Aramean  tribe.  A  tribe  bearing  a  similar  name  is  also 
mentioned  in  the  south  Arabian  inscriptions.  The  Hagar  of 
the  story  is  a  typical  daughter  of  the  desert.  When  she  became 
the  mother  of  a  child,  the  highest  honor  that  could  come  to 
a  Semitic  woman,  she  could  not  resist  the  temptation  to  taunt 
Sarah.  In  keeping  with  early  Semitic  customs  Sarah  had  full 
authority  to  demand  the  expulsion  of  Hagar,  for  in  the  eye  of 
the  law  the  slave  wife  was  her  property.  The  tradition  of  the 
revelation  to  Hagar  also  represented  the  popular  explanation  of 
the  sanctity  of  the  famous  desert  shrine  Beer-lahai-roi.  Like 
most  of  the  prophetic  stories,  this  narrative  teaches  deeper 
moral  lessons.  Chief  among  these  is  the  broad  truth  that  the 
sphere  of  God's  care  and  blessing  was  by  no  means  limited  to 
Israel.  To  the  outcast  and  needy  he  ever  comes  with  his 
message  of  counsel  and  promise.  Was  Abraham  right  or  wrong 
in  yielding  to  Sarah's  wish?  Was  Sarah  right  or  wrong  in  her 
attitude  toward  Hagar?  Was  Hagar's  triumphal  attitude  to- 
ward Sarah  natural?     Was  it  right? 

In  the  story  of  the  destruction  of  Sodom  Lot  appears  as  the 
central  figure.  His  choice  of  the  fertile  plain  of  the  Jordan  had 
brought  him  into  close  contact  with  its  inhabitants,  the  Canaan- 
ites.  Abandoning  his  nomadic  life,  he  had  become  a  citizen 
of  the  corrupt  city  of  Sodom.  When  at  last  Jehovah  had  deter- 
mined to  destroy  the  city  because  of  its  wickedness,  Abraham 
persistently  interceded  that  it  be  spared.  Its  wickedness 
proved,  however,  too  great  for  pardon.  Lot,  who,  true  to  his 
nomad  training,  hospitably  received  the  divine  messengers, 
was  finally  persuaded  to  flee  from  the  city  and  thus  escaped  the 
overwhelming  destruction  that  fell  upon  it.  What  was  the 
possible  origin  of  this  story?  {Hist.  Bible  I,  87.)  What  are 
the  important  religious  teachings  of  this  story?    Were  great 


32  The  Making  of  a  Nation 

calamities  in  the  past  usually  the  result  of  wickedness?  Are 
they  today?  Do  people  so  interpret  the  destruction  of  San 
Francisco  and  Messina?  The  great  epidemic  of  cholera  in 
Hamburg  in  1892  was  clearly  the  result  of  a  gross  neglect  of 
sanitary  precautions  in  regard  to  the  water  supply.  At  that 
date  the  cholera  germ  had  not  been  clearly  identified  and  there 
was  some  doubt  regarding  the  means  by  which  the  disease  was 
spread.  Was  sanitary  neglect  then  as  much  of  a  sin  as  it  would 
be  now?  May  we  properly  say  that  the  pestilence  was  a  calam- 
ity visited  on  that  city  as  a  punishment  for  its  sin  of  neglect? 

Why  did  the  prophets  preserve  the  story  of  the  sacrifices  of 
Isaac?    Compare  the  parallel  teaching  in  Micah  6:  6-8- 

With  what  shall  I  come  before  Jehovah, 

Bow  myself , before  the  God  on  high? 

Shall  I  come  before  him  with  burnt-offerings, 

With  calves  a  year  old? 

Will  Jehovah  be  pleased  with  thousands  of  rams, 

With  myriads  of  streams  of  oil? 

Shall  I  give  him  my  first-bom  for  my  guilt. 

The  fruit  of  my  body  for  the  sin  of  my  soul? 

Which  is  the  most  important  teaching  of  the  story:  the  im- 
portance of  an  unquestioning  faith  and  obedience,  or  the  need- 
lessness  of  human  sacrifice?  Does  God  ever  command  any 
person  to  do  anything  that  the  person  thinks  wrong? 

III. 

The  Prophetic  Portrait  of  Abraham. 
In  the  so-called  later  priestly  stories  regarding  Abraham  (see 
especially  Gen.  17)  he  is  portrayed  as  a  devoted  servant  of  the 
law,  chiefly  intent  upon  observing  the  simple  ceremonial  in- 
stitutions revealed  to  him  in  that  primitive  age.  With  him  the 
later  priests  associated  the  origin  of  the  distinctive  rite  of  cir- 
cumcision. In  Genesis  14  Abraham  is  pictured  as  a  valiant 
warrior  who  espoused  the  cause  of  the  weak  and  won  a  great 
victory  over  the  united  armies  of  the  Eastern  kings.  Like  a 
knight  of  olden  times,  he  restored  the  captured  spoil  to  the  city 
that  had  been  robbed  and  gave  a  liberal  portion  to  the  priest 
king  Melchizedek,  who  appears  to  have  been  regarded  in  later 
Jewish  tradition  as  the  forerunner  of  the  Jerusalem  priesthood. 
In  the  still  later  Jewish  traditions,  of  which  many  have  been 
preserved,  he  is  pictured  sometimes  as  an  invincible  warrior, 


The  Pioneer^ s  Influence  upon  a  Nation^ s  Ideals  33 

before  whom  even  the  great  city  of  Damascus  fell,  sometimes 
as  an  ardent  foe  of  idolatry,  the  incarnation  of  the  spirit  of  later 
Judaism,  or  else  he  is  thought  of  as  having  been  borne  to  heaven 
on  a  fiery  chariot,  where  he  receives  to  his  bosom  the  faithful 
of  his  race.  Thus  each  succeeding  generation  or  group  of  writ- 
ers made  Abraham,  as  the  traditional  father  of  their  race,  the 
embodiment  of  their  highest  ideals. 

The  Abraham  of  the  early  prophetic  narratives,  however,  is  a 
remarkably  consistent  character.  He  exemplifies  that  which  is 
noblest  in  Israel's  early  ideals.  How  is  Abraham's  faith  il- 
lustrated in  the  prophetic  stories  considered  in  the  preceding 
paragraph?  His  unselfishness  and  generosity?  His  courtly 
hospitality?  Was  his  politeness  to  strangers  simply  due  to  his 
training  and  the  traditions  of  the  desert  or  was  it  the  expression 
of  his  natural  impulses?  Was  Abraham's  devoted  interest 
in  the  future  of  his  descendants  a  noble  quality?  How  are  his 
devotion  and  obedience  to  God  illustrated?  In  the  light  of  this 
study  describe  the  Abraham  of  the  prophetic  narratives.  Is 
it  a  perfect  character  that  is  thus  portrayed?  Is  it  the  product 
of  a  primitive  state  of  society  or  of  a  high  civilization? 

IV. 

The  Tendency  to  Idealize  National  Heroes. 
Is  Shakespeare  right  in  his  statement  that  "  The  evil  that  men 
do  lives  after  them;  the  good  is  oft  interred  with  their  bones"? 
Why  do  men  as  a  rule  idealize  the  dead?  Does  the  primitive 
tendency  to  ancestor  worship  in  part  explain  this?  Is  the  tend- 
ency to  idealize  the  men  of  the  past  beneficial  in  its  effect  upon 
the  race?  What  would  be  the  effect  if  all  the  iniquity  of  the 
past  were  remembered?  The  tendency  to  idealize  national 
heroes  is  by  no  means  confined  to  the  Hebrews.  Greek,  Roman 
and  English  history  abounds  in  illustrations.  Cite  some  of  the 
more  striking.  Why  are  they  often  thought  of  as  descendants 
of  the  gods?  Compare  the  popular  conception  of  the  first 
president  of  the  United  States  and  his  character  as  portrayed 
in  Ford's  "The  Real  George  Washington."  The  portraits 
of  national  heroes,  even  though  they  are  idealized,  exert  a  power- 
ful and  wholesome  influence  upon  the  nations  who  honor  their 
memory.  The  noblest  ideals  in  each  succeeding  generation  are 
often  thus  concretely  embodied  in  the  character  of  some  na- 
tional hero.  Compare  the  great  heroes  of  Greek  mythology 
with  the  early  heroes  of  the  Old  Testament.     Do  these  differ- 


34  The  Making  of  a  Nation 

ences  correspond  to  the  distinctive  characteristics  of  the  Greeks 
and  the  Hebrews?  Are  these  differences  due  to  the  peculiar 
genius  of  each  race  or  in  part  to  the  influence  exerted  by  the 
ideals  thus  concretely  presented  upon  each  succeeding  genera- 
tion? Is  it  probable  that  in  the  character  of  Abraham  the 
traditional  father  of  the  Hebrew  race  was  idealized?  Is  it  pos- 
sible that  teachers  of  Israel,  consciously  or  unconsciously, 
fostered  this  tendency  that  they  might  in  this  concrete  and 
effective  way  impress  their  great  teachings  upon  their  race? 
If  so,  does  it  decrease  or  enhance  the  value  and  authority  of 
these  stories? 

V. 

The  Reasons  for  Migration. 

In  the  early  history  of  most  countries  there  comes  a  pressure 
of  population  upon  the  productive  powers  of  the  land.  As 
numbers  increase  in  the  hunting  stage  game  becomes  scarce  and 
more  hunting  grounds  are  needed.  Tribes  migrate  from  season 
to  season,  as  did  the  American  Indians,  and  eventually  some 
members  of  the  tribe  are  likely  to  go  forth  to  seek  new  homes. 
Later  in  the  pastoral  stage  of  society,  as  the  wealth  of  flocks  and 
herds  increases,  more  pasturage  is  needed  and  similar  results 
follow.  Even  after  agriculture  is  well  established  and  commerce 
is  well  begun,  as  in  Ancient  Greece,  colonies  have  a  Hke  origin. 
In  the  England  of  the  nineteenth  century  Malthus  and  his  fol- 
lowers taught  the  tendency  of  population  to  outgrow  the  means 
of  subsistence  —  a  tendency  overcome  only  by  restraints  on 
the  growth  of  population,  or  by  new  inventions  that  enable 
new  sources  of  supply  to  be  secured  or  that  render  the  old  ones 
more  efficient.  Emigration  and  pioneering  are  thus  a  normal 
outgrowth  of  a  progressive  growing  people  in  any  stage  of 
civilization.  What  does  the  statement  about  Abraham's 
wealth  in  cattle  and  silver  and  gold  show  regarding  the  country 
from  which  he  came  and  the  probable  cause  of  God's  direction 
for  his  removal? 

Immigrants  and  pioneers  are  usually  the  self-reliant  and  cour- 
ageous, who  dare  to  endure  hardships  and  incur  risks  to  secure 
for  their  country  and  posterity  the  benefits  of  new  lands  and 
broader  opportunity.  The  trials  of  new  and  untried  experiences 
and  often  of  dire  peril  strengthen  the  character  already  strong, 
so  that  the  pioneers  in  all  lands  and  ages  have  been  heroes  whose 
exploits  recounted  in  song  and  story  have  stirred  the  hearts  and 


The  Pioneer^ s  Influence  upon  a  Nation's  Ideals  35 

molded  the  faith  of  their  descendants  through  many  generations. 
In  the  light  of  later  history  what  was  the  profound  rehgious 
significance  to  his  race  and  to  the  world,  of  the  migration  repre- 
sented by  Abraham?  The  Biblical  narrative  does  not  state 
the  exact  way  in  which  Jehovah  spoke  to  Abraham.  Is  it 
possible  and  probable  that  God  spoke  to  men  in  that  early  day 
as  he  speaks  to  them  now,  through  their  experiences  and  inner 
consciousness?  In  what  sense  was  Abraham  a  pioneer? 
Was  it  for  Abraham's  material  interest  to  migrate  to  Canaan? 

VI. 

The  Permanent  Value  and  Influence  of  the  Abraham 

Narratives. 

Scholars  will  probably  never  absolutely  agree  regarding  many 
problems  connected  with  Abraham.  Some  have  gone  so  far  as  to 
question  whether  he  was  an  historical  character  or  not.  Is  the 
question  of  fundamental  importance?  Other  writers  declare  it 
probable  that  a  tribal  sheik  by  the  name  of  Abraham  led  one 
of  the  many  nomad  tribes  that  somewhere  about  the  middle 
of  the  second  millenium  B.C.  moved  westward  into  the  terri- 
tory of  Palestine.  It  is  probable  that  popular  tradition  has 
preserved  certain  facts  regarding  his  life  and  character.  It 
is  equally  clear  that  the  different  groups  of  Israel's  teachers 
have  each  interpreted  his  character  and  work  in  keeping 
with  their  distinctive  ideals.  Each  individual  narrative  has 
an  independent  unity  and  the  connection  between  the  different 
accounts  is  far  from  close.  Some  of  them  aim  to  explain 
the  derivation  of  popular  names,  as  for  example,  Abraham, 
Isaac,  and  Ishmael,  the  sanctity  of  certain  sacred  places,  as 
for  example,  Beersheba,  the  origin  of  important  institutions, 
as  for  example,  circumcision  and  the  substitution  of  animal 
for  human  sacrifice,  and  the  explanation  of  striking  physical 
phenomena,  as  for  example  the  desolate  shores  of  the  Dead  Sea. 

Some  of  these  accounts,  like  the  table  of  nations  in  Genesis  10, 
preserve  the  memory  of  the  relationship  between  Israel  and  its 
neighbors.  They  preserve  also  the  characteristic  popular 
record  of  the  early  migrations  which  brought  these  peoples  to 
Palestine,  where  they  crystalized  into  the  different  nations  that 
figure  in  the  drama  of  Israel's  history.  The  permanent  and 
universal  value  of  these  stories  lies,  however,  in  the  great  moral 
principles  which  they  vividly  and  effectively  illustrate.  The 
prophetic  portrait  of  Abraham  was  an  inspiring  example  to 


36  The  Making  of  a  Nation 

hold  up  before  a  race.  The  characteristics  of  Abraham  can  be 
traced  in  the  ideals  and  character  of  the  Israelites.  They  were 
unquestionably  an  important  force  in  developing  the  prophet 
nation.  He  was,  therefore,  pre-eminently  a  spiritual  pioneer. 
How  far  do  these  stories,  and  especially  the  accounts  of  the 
covenant  between  Jehovah  and  Abraham,  embody  the  national 
and  spiritual  aspirations  of  the  race?  Are  the  Abraham  stories 
of  practical  inspiration  to  the  present  generation?  What 
qualities  in  his  character  are  essential  to  the  all-around  man  of 
any  age?  How  far  would  the  Abraham  of  the  prophetic  stories 
succeed,  were  he  living  in  America  to-day?  Would  he  be  ap- 
preciated by  a  majority  of  our  citizens?  Are  spiritual  pioneers 
of  the  type  of  Abraham  absolutely  needed  in  every  nation  and 
generation  if  the  human  race  is  to  progress? 

Questions  for  Further  Consideration. 

Are  God's  purposes  often  contrary  to  man's  desires?  Ever  to  man's  best 
interests? 

What  qualities  must  every  true  pioneer  possess? 

What  is  the  ultimate  basis  of  all  true  politeness? 

Who  are  some  of  the  great  pioneers  of  early  American  history?  What 
were  their  chief  contributions  to  their  nation? 

Is  your  own  conscientious  conception  of  your  duty  to  be  considered  as 
God's  command  to  you?     Does  he  give  any  other  command? 

Does  a  high  stage  of  civilization  ennoble  character  or  tend  to  degrade  it? 

Subjects  for  Further  Study. 

(1)  Abraham  in  Late  Jewish  Tradition.  Hastings,  Diet.  Bib.  I,  16,  17; 
Ginsberg,  TJie  Legends  of  the  Jews,  I,  pp.  185-308. 

(2)  The  Geological  History  of  the  Dead  Sea  Valley.  Hastings,  Diet. 
Bib.  I,  575-7;  Encyc,  Bib.  I,  1042-6;  Kent,  Bib.  Geog.  and  Hist.,  45-54; 
Smith,  Hist.  Geography,  499-516. 

(3)  The  Original  Meaning  of  Sacrifice.  St.  0.  T.,  IV,  238;  Hastings, 
Diet.  Bib.  IV,  329-31;  ^nc2/c.  Bib.  IV,  4216-26;  Smith,  Relig.  of  the  Semites, 
213-43,  252-440;  Gordon,  Early  Traditions  of  Genesis,  212-16. 

(4)  A  Comparison  of  the  Motives  that  Inspired  the  Migrations  of  the 
Ancestors  of  the  Hebrews  and  our  Pilgrim  Fathers.  Cheyney,  European 
Background  of  American  History;  Andrews,  Colonial  Self -Government. 


The  Power  of  Ambition  37 

STUDY  VI 
THE  POWER  OF  AMBITION. 

Jacob,  the  Persistent. — Gen.  28,  10 — 33,  20. 

Parallel  Readings. 
Hist.  Bible  I,  101-21. 
Hastings,  Diet.  Bible  II,  526-535. 
Prin.  o/  Politics  Ch.  II. 

Now  as  the  boys  ^ew  Esau  became  a  skiKul  hunter,  but  Jacob  was  a 
quiet  man,  a  dweller  in  tents.  And  Isaac  loved  Esau — for  he  had  a  taste 
for  game — and  Rebekah  loved  Jacob. 

Once  when  Jacob  was  preparing  a  stew,  Esau  came  in  from  the  field,  and 
he  was  faint;  therefore  Esau  said  to  Jacob,  Let  me  eat  quickly,  I  pray,  some 
of  that  red  food,  for  I  am  faint.  (Therefore  his  name  was  called  Edom, 
Red.)  But  Jacob  said,  Sell  me  first  of  all  your  birthright.  And  Esau 
repHed,  Alas!  I  am  nearly  dead,  therefore  of  what  use  is  this  birthright  to 
me?  And  Jacob  said,  Swear  to  me  first;  so  he  swore  to  him,  and  sold  his 
birthright  to  Jacob.  Then  Jacob  gave  Esau  bread  and  stewed  lentils,  and 
when  he  had  eaten  and  drank,  he  rose  up  and  went  his  way.  Thus  Esau 
despised  his  birthright. — Hist.  Bible. 

Charles  Darwin  when  asked  for  the  secret  of  his  success  said,  "  It's  dogged 
as  does  it." 

Oh  well  for  him  whose  will  is  strong! 

He  suffers,  but  he  will  not  suffer  long; 

He  suffers,  but  he  cannot  suffer  wrong: 

For  him  nor  moves  the  loud  world's  random  mock, 

Nor  all  Calamity's  hugest  waves  confound. 

Who  seems  a  promontory  of  rock, 

That,  compasst  round  with  turbulent  sound 

In  middle  ocean  meets  the  surging  shock. 

Tempest-buff etted  but  citadel-crowned. 

— Tennyson. 

Life  is  comic  or  pitiful,  as  soon  as  the  high  ends  of  being  fade  out  of 
sight  and  man  becomes  near-sighted  and  can  only  attend  to  what  addresses 
the  senses. — Emerson. 

Who  rises  every  time  he  falls 
Will  sometime  rise  to  stay. 

I. 

The  Two  Brothers,  Jacob  and  Esau. 
South  of  the  Dead  Sea,  bounded  by  the  rocky  desert  on  the 
east  and  the  hot  barren  Arabah  on  the  west,  extends  the  wild 
picturesque  range  of  Mount  Seir.  It  is  a  land  of  lofty  heights 
and  deep,  alraost  inaccessible  valleys,  the  home  of  the  hunter  and 
the  nomad.     From  a  few  copious  springs  there  issue  clear,  re- 


38  The  Making  of  a  Nation 

freshing  brooks,  which  run  rippling  through  the  deep  ravines, 
but  soon  lose  themselves  in  their  hot,  gravelly  beds.  A  few  miles 
further  on  they  emerge  and  again  disappear,  as  they  approach 
the  borders  of  the  hot,  thirsty  wilderness  that  surrounds  Mount 
Seir  on  every  side.  Here  in  early  times  hved  the  Edomites, 
a  nomadic  people  who  established  themselves  in  this  borderland 
of  Palestine  long  before  the  Hebrews  gained  a  permanent  foot- 
hold in  the  land  of  Canaan.  The  name,  Edom,  is  found  in  an 
inscription  of  a  king  of  the  eighth  Egyptian  Dynasty. 

In  the  Biblical  narrative,  Esau  evidently  is  the  traditional 
ancestor  of  the  Edomites,  even  as  Jacob  figures  as  the  father 
of  the  twelve ,  tribes.  One  of  the  aims  of  these  narratives,  it 
seems  to  many  scholars,  is  to  explain  why  the  Israelites,  the 
younger  people,  who  settled  latest  in  Palestine,  ultimately  pos- 
sessed the  land  and  conquered  the  Edomites. 

The  portraits  of  Esau  and  Jacob  are  remarkably  true  to  the 
characteristics  of  these  two  rival  nations.  They  are  also  faith- 
ful to  human  nature  as  we  find  it  to-day.  Of  these  two  brothers 
which,  on  the  whole,  is  the  more  attractive?  Which  resembles 
his  father  and  which  his  mother?  (Read  the  accounts  of  their 
lives.  Gen.  24-27.)  What  noble  virtues  does  Esau  possess? 
What  was  his  great  fault?  Reckless  men  or  drifters  with  gen- 
erous impulses  but  with  no  definite  purpose,  of  whom  gypsies 
and  hoboes  are  extreme  types,  are  found  in  every  age  and 
society.  Why  is  it  that  men  of  the  type  of  Esau  so  often  in 
time  become  criminals? 

II. 

The  Man  with  a  Wrong  Ambition. 
The  modern  tendency  to  idealize  the  character  of  Jacob, 
simply  because  he  was  one  of  the  famous  patriarchs,  is  both 
unfortunate  and  misleading.  Although  he  vividly  typifies  cer- 
tain characteristics  of  his  race,  the  Jacob  of  these  early  prophetic 
accounts  is  portrayed  with  absolute  fidelity  and  realism.  His 
faults  are  revealed  even  more  clearly  than  his  virtues.  The 
dominant  motive  in  his  life  is  ambition,  but  it  is  a  thoroughly 
selfish  ambition.  In  the  light  of  the  stories,  state  in  your  own 
words  what  was  the  exact  nature  of  Jacob's  ambition.  How 
did  it  differ  from  that  of  Abraham?  What  methods  did  he  use 
to  achieve  his  ambition?  Were  these  methods  justifiable? 
What  is  your  view  of  the  statement,  "The  end  justifies  the 
means"?    Try  to  define  exactly  the  method  of  determining 


The  Power  of  Ambition  39 

justifiable  means.  May  Jacob's  action  be  excused  because  he 
was  acting  under  the  direction  of  his  mother? 

Does  a  man  with  a  selfish  ambition  always  injure  others? 
Does  he  in  the  end  injure  himself  most  of  all?  How?  Every 
type  of  selfishness  is  directly  opposed  to  a  man's  highest  seK- 
interest.  Jesus  continually  had  this  large  truth  in  mind  when 
he  declared,  *'He  that  findeth  his  fife  shall  lose  it,  but  he  that 
loseth  his  life  for  my  sake  shall  find  it."  Jesus  himself  illus- 
trated this  principle.  Cite  other  illustrations  from  history. 
From  your  own  observation  or  experience. 

Was  Jacob,  even  with  his  wrong  ambition,  a  stronger  and 
more  promising  character  than  his  brother  Esau?    Why? 

Would  you  rather  have  your  son  a  boy  of  strong  character 
with  vicious  tendency  or  a  weakling  with  harmless,  virtuous 
inclinations? 

III. 

Jacob's  Training  in  the  School  of  Experience. 

Jacob's  experiences  as  a  fugitive  well  illustrate  the  homely 
proverb,  "  The  way  of  the  transgressor  is  hard."  He  who  de- 
ceived and  cheated  his  brother  soon  became  the  victim  of 
deception  and  fraud.  Most  painful  of  all  was  the  ever-haunting 
sense  of  fear  because  of  the  consequences  of  his  wrong  acts  that 
followed  him  even  in  his  life  as  an  exile  and,  hke  a  spectre,  con- 
fronted him  as  he  returned  again  to  the  scenes  of  his  boyhood. 
These  painful  experiences  were  probably  essential  to  the  develop- 
ment of  Jacob's  character.  Are  there  any  other  ways  in  which 
men  of  this  t3^e  can  be  led  to  appreciate  that  their  ambitions 
are  wrong?  Was  Laban  any  more  imjust  or  tricky  in  his  deal- 
ing with  Jacob  than  Jacob  had  been  with  Esau,  or  than  Jacob 
was  with  Laban?  Note  the  grim  humor  running  through  these 
stories.  They  are  the  type  of  stories  that  would  be  especially 
appreciated  when  told  by  shepherds  beside  the  camp  fire. 

The  most  significant  point  in  these  stories  is  that  they  declare 
that  Jehovah's  care  and  guidance  followed  the  selfish  deceiver 
even  as  he  fled  the  consequences  of  his  own  misdeeds.  Why 
should  that  divine  care  shield  him  from  the  consequences  of  his 
misdeeds?  Do  we  find  such  instances  to-day?  How  do  you 
explain  them?  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  story  of  Jacob's 
vision  at  Bethel?  What  promising  elements  did  Jehovah  find 
in  Jacob's  character?  What  practical  lessons  did  Jacob  learn 
during  his  sojourn  in  Aram? 


40  The  Making  of  a  Nation 

Was  Jacob  really  a  hypocrite,  or  did  he  in  fact  fail  to  see  any 
inconsistency  between  his  trickery  and  meanness  and  his  wor- 
ship of  Jehovah?  A  man  may  be  sincere  in  his  religious  wor- 
ship on  Sunday  and  yet  cheat  a  neighbor  on  Monday.  Analyze 
carefully  the  nature  of  his  religion. 

IV. 

The  Invincible  Power  of  Ambition  and  Perseverance. 

History  and  modem  life  abound  in  illustrations  of  what  can  be 
accomplished  by  the  combination  of  ambition  and  perseverance. 
Cyrus,  the  king  of  a  little  upland  province,  through  a  remarkable 
series  of  victories  became  the  undisputed  master  of  south- 
western Asia  and  laid  the  foundations  of  the  great  Persian  Em- 
pire. Julius  Csesar,  who  transformed  Rome  from  a  republic 
into  an  empire,  and  Napoleon  the  Corsican,  are  the  classic 
illustrations  of  the  power  of  great  ambition  and  dauntless  per- 
sistency. Far  nobler  is  that  quiet,  courageous  perseverance 
which  led  Livingston  through  the  trackless  swamps  and  forests 
of  Africa  and  blazed  the  way  for  the  conquest  of  the  dark  conti- 
nent. Equally  significant  is  that  noble  ambition,  coupled  with 
heroic  perseverance,  that  has  enabled  settlement  workers  to 
bring  light  to  the  darkest  parts  of  our  great  cities. 

Ambition  without  persistency  is  but  a  dream  or  hope.  Ob- 
serve Jacob's  persistency  in  the  Biblical  stories.  Does  persist- 
ency, which  has  always  been  a  marked  characteristic  of  the 
Hebrew  race,  largely  explain  the  achievements  of  the  Jews 
throughout  the  world?  Note  the  apparently  scientific  knowl- 
edge regarding  breeding  of  lambs  by  Jacob  in  his  dealings  with 
Laban.  Is  it  a  fact  recognized  by  science  to-day?  If  he  knew 
this  and  Laban  did  not,  can  you  justify  his  acts?  Can  you 
justify  the  act  of  the  director  of  a  corporation  who  uses  his 
prior  knowledge  of  the  business  of  his  corporation  to  make 
profit  from  buyuig  or  selling  its  stocks?  Who  loses?  Is  he  a 
trustee  for  their  interests? 

What  is  the  meaning  of  the  strange  story  of  Jacob's  mid- 
night struggle  with  the  angel?  (Hist.  Bible  I,  119-20.)  What 
lessons  did  Jacob  learn  from  this  struggle?  Would  you  call 
Jacob  a  truly  religious  man,  according  to  his  light  and  training, 
or  were  his  religious  professions  only  hypocritical?  May  he  have 
been  sincere,  but  have  had  a  wrong  conception  of  religion? 
What  is  hypocrisy?  Did  Jacob's  faith  in  Jehovah,  in  the  end 
prove  the  strongest  force  in  his  life?    Is  there  any  trace  in  his 


The  Power  of  Ambition  41 

later  years,  of  the  selfish  ambition  which  earlier  dominated  him? 
What  are  his  chief  interests  in  the  latter  part  of  his  life?  Did  he 
become  the  strong  and  noble  character  that"  he  might  have  been 
had  he  from  the  first  been  guided  by  a  worthy  ambition?  Were 
the  misfortunes  that  came  to  him  in  his  old  age  due  largely  to 
his  own  faults  reappearing  in  the  characters  of  his  sons? 

V. 

The  Different  Types  of  Ambition. 
In  the  ultimate  analysis  it  is  the  man's  motive  which  deter- 
mines his  character  as  well  as  his  acts. 

"As  he  thinketh  within  himself,  so  is  he." — Prov.  2S:7. 
"Man  looketh  on  the  outward  appearance,  but  Jehovah  on  the  heart." — 
/  Sam.  16:7. 

With  many  men  the  strongest  motive  is  the  desire  to  surpass 
others.  It  not  only  leads  them  to  perform  certain  acts,  but  in 
so  doing  shapes  their  habits;  and  character  is  largely  the  result 
of  man's  habitual  way  of  acting.  Jacob  grew  up  narrow  and 
crafty  because  of  the  selfish,  dwarfing  nature  of  his  ambition. 
At  first  his  ambition  was  of  a  low  type,  that  of  the  child  which 
desires  to  acquire  possessions  and  power  simply  for  himself. 
In  the  child  this  impulse  is  perfectly  natural.  In  the  normally 
developed  individual,  during  the  years  of  early  adolescence 
(the  years  of  14  to  16)  the  social  and  altruistic  impulses  begin  to 
develop  and  to  take  the  place  of  those  which  are  purely  egoistic 
or  selfish.  When  the  fully  developed  man  fails,  as  did  Jacob, 
to  leave  behind  childish  things  and  retains  the  ambitions  and 
impulses  of  the  child,  his  condition  is  pitiable. 

Men  of  this  iyY>^  of  ambition  often  achieve  great  things  from 
the  economic  or  political  point  of  view.  Economically  they  are 
of  greater  value  to  society  than  the  drifter.  Sometimes,  how- 
ever, they  bring  ruin  and  disaster  to  society,  as  well  as  to  them- 
selves. Despots  like  Herod  the  Great  and  Napoleon,  corrupt 
political  bosses,  who  play  into  the  hands  of  certain  classes  at  the 
expense  of  the  general  public,  and  men  who  employ  grafting 
methods  in  business  or  politics,  belong  to  this  class. 

VI. 

The  Development  of  Right  Ambitions. 
The  desire  to  spare  one's  energies  is  natural  to  man.     To 
gain  wealth  with  the  least  expenditure  of  energy  is  said  to  be 


42  The  Making  of  a  Nation 

the  chief  economic  motive.  Most  men  are  by  nature  lazy. 
This  law  of  inertia  applies  not  only  in  the  physical  world,  but 
also  in  the  intellectual,  moral  and  spiritual  fields.  The  great 
majority  of  men  follow  the  line  of  least  resistance.  In  politics 
and  morals  they  accept  the  standards  of  their  associates. 
Unconsciously  they  join  the  great  army  of  the  drifters,  or  fol- 
lowers, who  preserve  the  traditions  of  the  past,  but  contribute 
little  to  the  future  progress  of  the  race.  To  deliver  man  from 
the  control  of  his  natural  inertia  he  must  be  touched  by  some 
strong  compelling  power.  Ambition  is  one  great  force  that 
enables  most  men  to  overcome  this  inertia.  The  influences, 
therefore,  which  kindle  ambition  are  among  the  most  impor- 
tant which  enter  the  life  of  man. 

In  the  Orient  the  mother  stands  in  especially  close  relation  to 
the  son.  How  far  w^as  Jacob's  desire  to  surpass  his  brother 
inspired  by  his  mother?  Many  of  the  world's  greatest  leaders 
trace  the  impulse  which  has  led  them  to  achieve  directly  to 
their  parents  and  especially  to  their  mothers.  The  mother 
of  Charles  and  John  Wesley  is  but  one  of  the  many  mothers  to 
whom  the  human  race  owes  an  inestimable  debt.  Of  all  the 
heritages  which  parents  can  leave  their  children  none  is  greater 
than  a  worthy  ambition.  Sometimes  it  is  the  personality  of  a 
great  teacher  which  inspires  the  youthful  ambition  and  directs 
it  in  lines  of  worthy  achievement.  How  much  of  England's 
greatness  may  be  traced  to  the  quiet  influence  of  Arnold  of 
Rugby!  Consider  the  imparalleled  influence  of  Socrates, 
Plato,  Aristotle  —  all  primarily  teachers. 

The  true  pastor  with  the  spirit  of  a  prophet  is  often  able  to 
guide  those  with  whom  he  comes  into  intimate  contact  to  great 
fields  of  service.  In  encouraging  Sophia  Smith  to  found  Smith 
College  that  quiet  New  England  pastor,  the  Reverend  John  M. 
Greene,  won  a  high  place  among  those  in  America  who  first 
appreciated  the  importance  of  education  of  woman.  Equally 
great  opportunities  may  lie  before  every  pastor  and  teacher 
and  citizen.  Frequently  it  is  the  contact  through  literature 
or  in  life  with  men  or  women  who  have  done  heroic  deeds  or 
have  won  success  in  the  face  of  great  obstacles  that  kindles 
the  youthful  ambition  and  stirs  the  latent  motives  which  in  turn 
develop  strong  and  noble  characters.  Therein  lies  the  perennial 
value  of  the  Biblical  narratives. 

For  many  men  that  which  arouses  their  ambitions  is  the  call 
of  a  great  opportunity  or  responsibility.     Note  the  change  in 


The  Power  of  Ambition  43 

General  Grant's  life  with  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War.  The 
unambitious  tanner  becomes  the  untiring,  rigid,  unconquerable 
soldier.  Striking  illustrations  of  this  fact  are  many  men, 
whose  character,  as  well  as  conduct  after  they  have  been  called 
to  positions  of  political  or  judicial  trust,  is  in  marked  contrast 
to  their  previous  record.  A  corrupt  lawyer  has  sometimes 
become  an  upright  judge.  The  pride  of  office,  the  traditions 
of  the  bench  have  sustained  him.  It  is  the  privilege  and  duty 
of  each  man,  by  thoughtful  deliberation  and  study  to  shape 
and  develop  his  own  individual  ambitions  that  they  may  con- 
form to  the  highest  ideals  and  thus  guide  him  to  the  noblest 
and  most  worthy  achievement.  Of  what  value  to  a  man  is 
biography  in  forming  his  ambitions?  Mention  some  biogra- 
phies that  you  consider  of  the  greatest  help.  In  what  ways  are 
the  life  and  teachings  of  Jesus  of  practical  service  in  develop- 
ing the  ambitions  of  a  man  to-day? 

Questions  for  Further  Consideration. 

Is  it  possible  for  a  man  without  ambition  to  develop  or  to  achieve  any- 
thing really  significant? 

In  your  judgment,  what  percentage  of  the  men  in  your  community  really 
think  out  and  carefully  plan  their  lives?  What  proportion  drift  or  take 
the  way  shown  them  by  others? 

Some  people  consider  mental  or  moral  inertia  the  chief  force  that  sus- 
tains the  corrupt  political  boss.     Is  this  true? 

What  proportion  of  the  voters  in  your  voting  district  actually  study  and 
appreciate  the  issues  in  each  election? 

What  proportion  of  church  members  drift  into  their  church  membership, 
and  what  proportion  join  only  after  a  careful  study  of  the  relative  merits 
of  the  different  churches? 

What  are  the  chief  ambitions  that  stir  men  to  action? 

What  was  Jesus'  ambition?  Paul's?  Florence  Nightingale's?  Abra- 
ham Lincoln's?  Peter  Cooper's?  Garibaldi's?  Dwight  L.  Moody's? 
Was  there  a  common  element  in  the  ambition  of  each  of  these  leaders  of 
men? 

Is  the  reahzation  of  the  ambition  to  serve  one's  feUow-men  hmited  to 
those  who  possess  unique  powers  or  opportunities? 

Subjects  for  Further  Study. 

(1)  The  Law  of  Inheritance  among  the  Early  Semites.  Hastings,  Diet. 
Bib.  II,  470-473;  Kent,  Student's  0.  T.,  Ill;  Johns,  Bab.  and  Assyr.  Laws, 
Contracts  and  Letters,  161-167. 

(2)  The  Arameans.  Hastings,  Diet.  Bible  I,  138-139;  Encyc.  Bib.  I, 
276-280;  Peters,  Early  Heb.  Story,  45-47,  115-116;  133-134;  Maspero, 
Struggle  of  the  Nations,  126. 

(3)  The  Psychological  Connection  between  Ambition,  Habits,  Character 
and  Pubhc  Life.  Prin.  of  Politics  Ch.  II  and  III.  James,  Talks  to  Teach- 
ers Ch.  II. 


44  The  Making  of  a  Nation 

STUDY  VII 

A  SUCCESSFUL  MAN  OF  AFFAIRS. 
Joseph's  Achievements. — Gen.  37,  39-48,  50. 

Parallel  Readings. 
Hist.  BibU,  I,  121-150. 
Hastings'  Did.  Bible,  II,  770-772. 
Emerson,  Essay  on  Character. 

Now  Israel  loved  Joseph  more  than  all  his  Other  children,  because  he 
was  the  son  of  his  old  age;  and  he  had  made  him  a  long  tunic  with  sleeves. 
And  when  his  brothers  saw  that  their  father  loved  him  more  than  all  his 
other  sons,  they  hated  him,  and  could  not  speak  to  him. 

But  Jehovah  was  with  Joseph  so  that  he  became  a  prosperous  man,  and 
was  in  the  house  of  his  master  the  Egyptian.  When  his  master  saw  that 
Jehovah  was  with  him,  and  that  Jehovah  caused  everything  that  he  did 
to  prosper  in  his  hands,  Joseph  found  favor  in  his  eyes,  as  he  ministered  to 
him,  so  that  he  made  him  overseer  of  his  house,  and  all  that  he  had  he  put 
in  his  charge. 

And  Jehovah  was  with  Joseph  and  showed  kindness  to  him,  and  gave  him 
favor  in  the  sight  of  the  keeper  of  the  prison,  so  that  the  keeper  of  the  prison 
gave  to  Joseph's  charge  aU  the  prisoners  who  were  in  the  prison,  and  for 
whatever  they  did  he  was  responsible. 

And  Pharaoh  said  to  Joseph,  See,  I  have  appointed  you  over  all  the  land 
of  Egypt.  And  Pharaoh  took  o&  his  signet  ring  from  his  finger  and  put  it 
upon  Joseph's  finger,  and  clothed  him  in  garments  of  fine  Hnen,  and  put  a 
gold  chain  about  his  neck,  and  made  him  ride  in  the  second  chariot  which 
he  had.  Then  they  cried  before  him,  Bow  the  knee!  Thus  he  set  him  over 
all  the  land  of  Egypt.  Pharaoh  also  said  to  Joseph,  I  am  Pharaoh,  but 
without  your  consent  shall  no  man  hft  up  his  hand  or  his  foot  in  all  the 
land  of  Egypt. — Hist.  Bible. 

For  what  is  a  man  profited,  if  he  shall  gain  the  whole  world  and  lose  his 
own  soul?— Ma«.  16:26. 

Men  at  some  time  are  masters  of  their  fates:  The  fault,  dear  Brutus,  is 
not  in  our  stars,  but  in  ourselves,  that  we  are  underlings. — Shakespeare 
(Julius  Caesar,  Act.  I,  Sc.  2,  L.  139). 

I  find  the  great  thing  in  this  world  is  not  so  much  where  we  stand  as  in 
what  direction  we  are  moving.  To  reach  the  port  of  Heaven  we  must  sail 
sometimes  with  the  wind,  and  sometimes  against  it;  but  we  must  sail  and 
not  drift,  nor  he  at  anchor. — 0.  W.  Holmes. 

He  that  respects  himself  is  safe  from  others; 
He  wears  a  coat  of  mail  that  none  can  pierce. 

It  is  more  important  to  make  a  Ufe  than  to  make  a  living. —  Ex-Governor 
Russell  of  Massachusetts. 

I. 

The  Qualities  Essential  to  Success. 
The  late  Samuel  L.  Clemens  (Mark  Twain)  advised  a  young 
man  who  desired  to  enter  business  to  select  the  firm  with  which 


A  Successful  Man  of  Affairs  45 

he  wished  to  be  associated,  then  ask  that  they  give  him  work, 
without  mentioning  the  subject  of  compensation.  Having 
secured  this  opportunity  to  demonstrate  his  abiUty  and  wiUing- 
ness  to  work,  recognition  would  come  in  due  time.  This  advice 
received  the  approval  of  many  prominent  business  men. 
It  concretely  illustrates  the  fact  that  the  first  essential  of  suc- 
cess is  the  willingness  to  serve.  It  also  emphasizes  the  necessity 
of  being  ready  to  do  the  work  in  accordance  with  the  employer's 
wishes.  Ultimate  success  also  requires  knowledge  and  trained 
ability.  These,  however,  come  through  apprenticeship  and  a 
faithful  improvement  of  opportimities.  The  Hebrew  sages, 
with  true  insight,  emphasized  the  importance  of  knowledge ;  but 
they  taught  also  that  wisdom,  which  is  not  only  knowledge,  but 
the  power  to  apply  it  practically  in  the  various  relations  of 
life,  was  far  more  important. 

What  other  qualities  are  essential  to  the  highest  success? 
Is  it  very  important  that  a  man  should  have  the  right  moral 
standards?     How  do  a  man's  habits  affect  his  efficiency? 

Is  it  only  the  genius  who  is  able  to  attain  the  highest  success 
to-day  in  business  and  professional  life?  Do  you  accept  George 
Eliot's  definition  of  genius  as  "the  capacity  for  unlimited 
work"?  To  what  extent  does  a  man's  faith  in  God  and  in  his 
fellow  men  determine  his  abihty  to  win  success?  How  far  are 
they  essential  to  the  attainment  of  the  highest  type  of  success? 

II. 

The  Limitations  and  Temptations  of  Joseph's  Early  Life. 

The  Hebrew  sage  who  uttered  the  prayer: 

Remove  far  from  me  falsehood  and  lies; 

Give  me  neither  poverty  nor  riches; 

Feed  me  with  the  food  that  is  needful  for  me. 

—Prov.  SO:  8. 

voiced  a  great  economic  as  well  as  moral  principle.  The  men 
who  are  handicapped  to-day  in  the  race  for  success  are  either 
those  who  are  bom  in  homes  of  extreme  poverty  or  of  extreme 
wealth  where  they  are  unnaturally  barred  or  shielded  from  the 
real  problems  and  tasks  of  Hfe.  Which  is  probably  the  greater 
handicap?     To  which  class  did  Joseph  belong? 

In  what  ways  did  his  father  show  his  favoritism  towards 
Joseph?  The  Hebrew  word  rendered  in  the  older  translations, 
"coat  of  many  colors,"  means  Hterally,  "long-sleeved  tunic." 
This  garment,  like  those  worn  by  wealthy  Chinese  when  in 


46  The  Making  of  a  Nation 

native  costume,  distinguished  the  rich  or  the  nobihty,  who  were 
not  under  the  necessity  of  engaging  in  manual  labor. 

The  dreams  which  Joseph  told  to  his  brothers  reveal  his  high 
estimate  of  his  own  importance  and  were  probably  suggested  by 
his  father's  attitude  toward  him.  They  were  indeed  a  revela- 
tion of  the  ambitions  already  stirring  in  the  young  boy's  mind. 
But  Joseph  required  closer  contact  with  real  Hfe  in  order  to 
transform  his  ambitions  into  actual  achievements. 

Joseph  gave  his  brothers  cause  for  hatred  toward  him,  but 
their  action  in  selling  him  to  the  Ishmaelites  was  by  no  means 
justifiable.  Nevertheless  it  brought  to  Joseph  the  experiences 
and  opportunities  absolutely  essential  to  the  attainment  of  his 
ultimate  success.  Often  what  seem  man's  greatest  misfor- 
tunes are  in  reality  the  door  that  opens  to  the  new  and  larger 
opportunities.     In  what  two  ways  may  a  man  meet  misfortune? 

III. 

The  Call  of  a  Great  Opportunity. 

Egypt,  with  its  marvelous  natural  resources,  its  peculiar 
climate,  its  irrigation,  which  usually  guarantees  good  crops,  and 
its  versatile  people,  has  always  been  pre-eminently  the  land 
of  opportunity.  Especially  was  this  true  during  the  reigns  of 
the  powerful  despots  of  the  eighteenth  dynasty,  when  the  rela- 
tions between  Egypt  and  Palestine  were  exceedingly  close. 
Thus,  for  example,  according  to  contemporary  records,  during 
the  reign  of  the  great  reformer  king,  Amenhotep  IV,  several 
Semites  rose  to  positions  of  great  authority.  A  certain  Dudu 
(David)  was  one  of  the  most  trusted  officials  of  this  king.  He 
is  addressed  by  one  of  the  Egyptian  governors  as  ''My  lord,  my 
father."  Another  Semite  named  Yanhamu  not  only  had  con- 
trol of  the  storehouses  of  grain  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  Nile 
Delta,  but  also  directed  the  Egyptian  rule  of  Palestine.  The 
local  governors  of  Palestine  refer  to  him  in  terms  which  suggest 
that  his  authority  was  almost  equal  to  that  of  Pharaoh  himself. 
This  was  perhaps  the  Joseph  of  the  Biblical  account. 

Is  there  any  evidence  that  Joseph  complained  because  of  the 
injustice  of  his  brothers?  By  loyal  attention  to  his  duties  he 
made  himself  indispensable  to  his  Egyptian  master.  A  great 
temptation  came  to  him  in  the  new  home.  What  influences  led 
him  to  resist  this  temptation?  Analyze  his  probable  motives 
in  detail. 

The  great  injustice  which  he  suffered  and  the  seeming  mis- 


A  Successful  Man  of  Affairs  47 

fortune  proved  in  turn  a  new  door  of  opportunity,  but  this 
would  not  have  been  the  case  had  not  Joseph  forgotten  his  own 
personal  wrongs  and  given  himself  to  the  service  of  his  fellow- 
prisoners.  Was  the  prosperity  which  generally  attended  Joseph 
a  miraculous  gift  or  the  natural  consequences  of  his  courageous, 
helpful  spirit  and  his  skill  in  making  the  best  of  every  situation? 

In  modern  life  as  in  the  ancient  story,  the  place  usually  seeks 
the  man  who  is  fitted  to  fill  it.  The  ever  recurring  complaint 
of  employers  is  the  scarcity  of  good  men,  especially  of  men  able 
to  exercise  discretion  in  positions  of  responsibility.  Was  it 
Joseph's  skill  in  interpreting  Pharaoh's  dreams,  or  his  wise 
counsel  in  suggesting  methods  of  providing  for  the  people  dur- 
ing famine  that  gave  him  his  position  of  high  trust  and  author- 
ity? Was  the  policy  which  made  Pharaoh  practical  owner  of 
all  the  land  first  instituted  by  Joseph,  or  was  it  already  in  force 
in  Egypt?  {Hist,  Bible,  1, 133.)  In  the  thought  of  the  prophetic 
narrative,  was  Joseph's  fiscal  system  regarded  as  evidence  of 
his  loyalty  to  his  master  rather  than  of  disloyalty  to  the  inter- 
ests of  the  people?  Was  the  system  suited  to  that  stage  and 
kind  of  civilization?  Can  this  be  cited  by  Socialists  to-day  as 
a  valid  argument  in  favor  of  public  ownership  of  all  land?  If 
not,  why  not? 

Three  principles,  illustrated  by  Joseph's  life,  are  true  to  all 
time:  (1)  The  only  successful  way  to  forget  one's  own  burdens 
is  to  help  bear  another's;  (2)  God  makes  all  things  work  to- 
gether for  good  to  those  that  love  him;  (3)  he  alone  who  im- 
proves the  small  opportunities  will  not  miss  the  great  chances 
of  life. 

IV. 

The  Temptations  of  Success. 
Modem  life,  and  especially  that  in  America  to-day,  is  full  of 
illustrations  of  the  overwhelming  temptations  which  come  to 
the  man  who  has  had  great  success.  Many  a  man  has  enjoyed 
the  confidence  and  respect  of  his  associates  until  his  abilities 
have  won  for  him  large  wealth  with  which  apparently  comes  at 
times  a  misleading  sense  of  immunity  from  the  ordinary  moral 
obligations.  The  result  has  been  that  the  sterling  virtues 
which  have  enabled  him  to  win  success  have  been  quickly  under- 
mined and  his  public  and  private  acts  have  become  the  theme 
of  the  public  press.  Instead  of  being  an  honor  he  has  become 
a  disgrace  to  his  nation. 


48  The  Making  of  a  Nation 

Joseph's  sudden  rise  to  power  surpassed  anything  told  in  the 
Arabian  Nights'  Tales,  and  yet  he  remained  the  same  simple, 
unaffected  man,  more  thoughtful  for  another's  interests  than 
for  his  own.  The  supreme  test  came  in  his  contact  with 
his  brothers,  who  had  insulted  and  cruelly  wronged  him. 
They  were  completely  at  his  mercy  and  he  had  abundant 
reason  for  ignoring  the  obligations  of  kinship.  Did  Joseph  hide 
his  cup  in  Benjamin's  sack  and  later  hold  him  as  a  hostage  in 
order  to  punish  his  brothers  or  to  test  their  honor  and  fidelity? 
Was  this  action  wise?     Did  the  brothers  stand  the  test? 

No  class  was  regarded  by  the  Egyptians  with  greater  scorn 
and  contempt  than  the  shepherds  to  whom  they  entrusted 
their  flocks,  because  the  task  of  herding  sheep  was  regarded  as 
too  menial  for  an  Egyptian.  The  public  recognition  of  his 
shepherd  kinsmen,  therefore,  revealed  in  Joseph  the  noblest 
and  most  courageous  quahties. 

Why  is  such  loyalty  a  primary  obligation?  Is  it  to-day  re- 
garded by  all  thoughtful  men  as  one  of  the  clearest  evidences  of 
a  strong  character?  Can  you  give  any  modern  illustrations, 
perhaps  among  your  acquaintances?  What  is  a  snob?  Did 
Joseph  leave  undone  any  act  which  loyalty  to  his  kinsmen  could 
prompt?  Is  Joseph's  character  as  portrayed  by  the  prophetic 
account  practically  perfect?  Of  the  three  characters,  Abraham, 
Jacob  and  Joseph,  which  offers  more  practical  suggestions  to 
the  man  of  to-day?  Which  has  exerted  the  most  powerful 
influence  upon  the  ideals  and  conduct  of  the  human  race? 

V. 

The  Stajtoards  of  Real  Success. 
It  is  natural  and  inevitable  that  the  various  social  classes  of 
each  succeeding  generation  should  define  their  standards  of 
success  concretely,  that  is,  by  the  lives  and  achievements  of 
those  who  have  done  great  things.  In  certain  social  groups  the 
world's  champion  prize  fighter  is  the  beau  ideal  of  success. 
Among  the  Camorrists  of  Italy  that  ideal  is  the  successful 
blackmailer.  In  many  sections  of  our  great  cities  the  powerful 
ward  boss,  whatever  be  his  methods,  is  regarded  as  the  embodi- 
ment of  success.  Too  often  in  America  to-day,  both  in  the 
public  press  and  in  the  public  mind,  the  multi-millionaire  is 
regarded  as  the  pre-eminently  successful  man.  Although  the 
power  to  amass  wealth  is  evidence  of  marked  ability,  the  hom- 
age paid  to  it  is  one  of  the  most  sinister  tendencies  in  American 


A  Successful  Man  of  Affairs  49 

life.  Ordinarily  it  means  that  the  ambitions  and  achievements  of 
a  Jacob,  rather  than  those  of  a  Joseph,  are  set  before  the  youth  as 
the  supreme  goal  for  which  to  strive.  A  most  hopeful  element 
in  the  present  situation  is  that  many  of  the  world's  wealthiest 
men  are  proclaiming  their  sense  of  responsibility  to  society  in 
ways  both  practical  and  impressive.  Far  more  significant 
than  their  actual  gifts  is  this  public  declaration  that  each  man  is 
indeed  his  brother's  keeper,  and  that  no  man  has  a  right  to 
use  his  wealth  simply  for  his  own  pleasure. 

Leonidas  and  his  fearless  patriotic  followers  at  Thermopylae 
left  an  impress  upon  Greek  life  and  character  that  did  not  fade 
for  centuries.  The  spirit  of  Robert  Bruce  still  lingers  among 
the  crags  and  heather-clad  hills  of  Scotland.  The  patriotic 
devotion  of  Garibaldi  has  imparted  a  new  character  to  the  Ital- 
ian race.  Two  hundred  million  of  the  world's  inhabitants  still 
bear  the  imprint  of  the  fiery  faith  and  fanaticism  of  Mahomet. 

America  is  rich  in  its  memories  of  the  achievements  of  such  as 
Washington,  Lincoln,  Morse,  Beecher  and  Emerson.  What 
characters  in  all  history  seem  to  you  the  best  examples  of 
real  success?  What  men  and  women  in  the  present  generation? 
How  can  the  great  majority  of  the  boys  and  girls  and  the  men 
and  women  of  to-day  be  led  to  accept  those  higher  ideals  of 
success  which  are  the  lodestones  drawing  on  the  race  to  higher 
achievement? 

VI. 

The  Methods  of  Success. 
The  story  is  told  of  the  late  President  Garfield  that  in  the 
heat  of  a  political  campaign  one  of  his  lieutenants  suggested 
that  he  adopt  an  exceedingly  questionable  policy.  When  Mr. 
Garfield  objected,  his  lieuteuant  replied,  "  No  one  will  know  it." 
"  But  I  shall  know,"  was  the  quick  reply. 

—  "To  thine  own  self  be  true, 

And  it  must  follow,  as  the  night  the  day, 

Thou  canst  not  then  be  false  to  any  man." 

— Hamlet,  Act  I,  Sc.  3. 

Wealth  and  power  are  worthy  goals  for  which  to  strive. 
One  of  the  first  duties  of  a  political  party  is  to  capture  the  offices, 
for  without  them  in  its  power  it  cannot  carry  out  the  principles 
for  which  it  stands.  The  possession  of  wealth  represents  vast 
possibilities  for  service.  Thousands  of  tragic  experiments  have 
demonstrated,  however,  the  fallacy  of  the  seductive  doctrine 


50  The  Making  of  a  Nation 

that  the  end  justifies  the  means.  The  tragedy  that  overshadows 
many  of  the  seemingly  most  successful  men  of  to-day  is  the  mem- 
ory of  the  iniquitous  methods  whereby  they  have  acquired  wealth 
or  mounted  to  power.  Lavish  philanthropy  and  the  beneficent 
use  of  power  can  never  wholly  blot  out  from  the  public  mind  or 
from  the  mind  of  the  successful  man  the  memory  of  certain 
questionable  acts  that  at  the  time  seemed  essential  to  the 
realization  of  a  great  policy. 

A  keen,  well-informed  student  of  modern  economic  condi- 
tions has  asserted  that  no  man  can  succeed  in  business  life  to- 
day and  remaui  true  to  the  teachings  of  Jesus.  Is  this  true? 
Is  it  true  in  professional  life?  Is  it  true  in  politics?  One  of 
our  most  prominent  statesmen  has  said  that  he  would  have 
found  it  impossible  to  succeed  and  maintain  his  independence 
if  he  had  been  compelled  to  earn  his  living.  He  would  have 
been  compelled  either  to  yield  to  the  boss  or  quit  politics.  Who 
are  some  of  the  men  in  pubhc  life  who  are  gainbig  success  and 
yet  mauitaining  Christian  principles?  If  the  ultimate  ideal 
of  real  success  is  service,  is  there  any  other  way  in  which  men 
may  obtain  success?  Is  this  true  of  every  department  of  human 
effort?  Does  this  principle  make  it  possible  for  every  man, 
however  limited  his  ability  and  opportunities,  to  attain  real 
success? 

Questions  for  Further  Consideration. 

How  would  you  define  genius?  Edison  called  it  2%  of  inspiration  and 
98%  of  perspiration.     (But  see  James,  Talks  to  Teachers.) 

Is  the  chief  difference  between  the  successful  and  the  unsuccessful  man 
the  abihty  to  recognize  and  seize  opportunities? 

Would  Joseph's  poUcy  in  deaUng  with  Pharaoh's  subjects  meet  with 
public  approval  to-day? 

Could  Joseph  have  succeeded  as  well  in  a  repubhc? 

Does  Joseph's  land  pohcy  justify  the  single  tax?  Or  serfdom  such  as 
Joseph  countenanced? 

What  place  does  loyalty  to  humble  friends  and  kinsmen  take  in  the 
making  of  great  and  noble  characters? 

Would  you  say  that  the  ultimate  standard  of  all  real  success  is  service? 

Would  it  be  wise  for  the  state  to  enforce  service  for  the  public  good  by  a 
heavy,  progressive  inheritance  tax? 

What  justification  is  there  for  such  a  modification  of  Joseph's  land 
pohcy,  as  the  single  tax?  (See  George,  Progress  and  Poverty;  Sehgman, 
Essays  on  Taxation,  64-94.) 

Do  you  think  that  a  man  earning  his  own  living  can  expect  to-day  to 
succeed  in  pohtics  and  maintain  his  self-respect  as  an  independent  thinker? 

Subjects  for  Further  Study, 
(1)  The  Origin  and  Literary  Form  of  the  Joseph  Narratives.     Kent, 
Student's  O.  T.  I,  126-127;    Hastings,  Diet.  Bible  II,  767-769:   Smith, 
O.  T.  History,  54-55. 


The  Training  of  a  Statesman  61 

(2)  Contemporary  Parallels  to  the  Joseph  of  the  Biblical  Narratives. 
Hastings'  Diet.  Bible  II,  772-775. 

(3)  Compare  and  Contrast  the  Achievements  of  Joseph,  Bismarck  and 
Cecil  Rhodes. 


STUDY  VIII 
THE  TRAINING  OF  A  STATESMAN. 
Moses  in  Egypt  and  the  Wilderness. — Ex.  1:1;  7: 5. 

Parallel  Readings. 
Goodnow,  F.  J.,  Comparative  Administrative  Law. 
Hist.  Bible  I,  151-69. 

And  he  went  out  on  the  following  day  and  saw  two  men  of  the  Hebrews 
striving  together;  and  he  said  to  the  one  who  was  doing  the  wrong,  Why 
do  you  smite  your  fellow-workman?  But  he  replied,  Who  made  you  a 
prince  and  a  judge  over  us?  Do  you  intend  to  kill  me  as  you  killed  the 
Egyptian?  Then  Moses  was  afraid  and  said,  Surely  the  thing  is  known. 
When,  therefore,  Pharaoh  heard  this  thing,  he  sought  to  kill  Moses.  But 
Moses  fled  from  the  presence  of  Pharaoh  and  took  up  his  abode  in  the  land 
of  Midian. 

And  Jehovah  said,  I  have  surely  seen  the  affliction  of  my  people  that  are 
in  Egypt,  and  have  heard  their  cry  of  anguish,  because  of  their  taskmasters, 
for  I  know  their  sorrows;  and  I  am  come  down  to  deUver  them  out  of  the 
power  of  the  Egyptians,  and  to  bring  them  up  out  of  that  land  to  a  land, 
beautiful  and  broad,  to  a  land  flowing  with  milk  and  honey ;  Go  and  gather 
the  elders  of  Israel  together  and  say  to  them,  Jehovah,  the  God  of  your 
fathers,  the  God  of  Abraham,  Isaac  and  Jacob,  hath  appeared  to  me,  say- 
ing, I  have  surely  visited  you,  and  seen  that  which  is  done  to  you  in  Egypt; 
and  I  have  said  I  will  bring  you  up  out  of  the  affliction  of  Egypt  to  a  land 
flowing  with  milk  and  honey.  And  they  shaU  hearken  to  thy  voice;  and 
thou  shalt  come,  together  with  the  elders  of  Israel,  to  the  king  of  Egypt, 
and  ye  shall  say  to  him,  ''Jehovah,  the  God  of  the  Hebrews,  hath  appeared 
to  us;  and  now  let  us  go,  we  pray  thee,  three  days'  journey  into  the  wilder- 
ness, that  we  may  sacrifice  to  Jehovah  our  God." — Hist.  Bible. 

Hold  on:  hold  fast:  hold  out  —  patience  is  genius. 

Let  us  have  faith  that  right  makes  might,  and  in  that  faith  let  us  dare  to 
do  our  duty  as  we  understand  it. — Lincoln. 

I. 

The  Egyptian  Background  of  the  Bondage. 
The  one  contemporary  reference  to  Israel  thus  far  found  in 
the  Egyptian  inscriptions  comes  from  the  reign  of  Merneptah  the 
son  of  Ramses  II.     It  implies  that  at  the  time  at  least  part  of 
the  Hebrews  were  in  the  land  of  Palestine : 


62  The  Making  of  a  Nation 

Plundered  is  Canaan  with  every  evil; 
Askalon  is  carried  into  captivity, 
Gezer  is  taken; 
Yenoam  is  annihilated, 
Israel  is  desolated,  her  seed  is  not, 
Palestine  has  become  a  widow  for  Egypt. 
All  lands  are  united,  they  are  pacified. 

Every  one  who  is  turbulent  has  been  found  by  King  Mer- 
neptah. 

The  testimony  of  the  oldest  Biblical  narratives  regarding  the 
sojourn  of  the  Hebrews  in  Egypt  is,  also,  in  perfect  accord 
with  the  picture  which  the  contemporary  Egyptian  inscriptions 
give  of  the  period.  Furthermore,  the  Egyptian  historians 
never  distinguished  the  different  races  in  their  midst,  but  rather 
designated  the  foreign  serf  class  by  a  common  name.  The  ab- 
sence of  detailed  reference  to  the  Hebrews  is  therefore  perfectly 
natural.  It  seems  probable  that  not  all  but  only  part  of  the 
tribes  which  ultimately  coalesced  into  the  Hebrew  nation  found 
their  way  to  Egypt.  The  stories  regarding  Joseph,  the  tradi- 
tional father  of  Ephraim  and  Manasseh,  imply  that  these  strong 
central  tribes,  possibly  together  with  the  southern  tribes  of  Ben- 
jamin and  Judah,  were  the  chief  actors  in  this  opening  scene 
in  Israel's  history. 

The  Biblical  narratives  apparently  disagree  regarding  the 
duration  of  the  sojourn  in  Egypt.  The  reference  in  Gen. 
15:16,  which,  some  writers  think,  comes  from  the  northern 
Israelite  group  of  stories,  implies  that  it  was  a  period  of  be- 
tween one  hundred  and  one  hundred  and  fifty  years.  The  same 
duration  is  suggested  by  the  priestly  writer  in  Numbers  26: 
57-59.  The  later  traditions  tend  to  extend  the  period.  If,  as 
seems  probable,  the  Hebrews  first  found  their  way  to  Egypt 
during  the  reign  of  Amenhotep  IV,  who  reigned  between  1375 
and  1358  B.C.,  the  older  Hebrew  chronology  would  make 
Ramses  II,  who  reigned  between  1292  and  1225,  the  Pharaoh 
of  the  oppression.  Of  all  the  Pharaohs  of  this  period  in 
Egypt's  history  the  great  builder  and  organizer  Ramses  II 
corresponds  most  closely  to  the  Biblical  description.  He  it 
was  who  filled  Egypt  from  one  end  to  the  other  with  vast 
temples  and  other  buildings  which  could  have  been  reared  only 
through  the  services  of  a  huge  army  of  serfs.  The  excava- 
tions of  the  Egypt  Exploration  fund  have  identified  the  Biblical 


The  Training  of  a  Statesman  53 

Pithom  with  certain  ruins  in  the  Wady  Tumilat  near  the 
eastern  terminus  of  the  modern  raihoad  from  Cairo  to  the  Suez 
Canal.  This  probably  lay  in  the  eastern  boundary  of  the 
Biblical  land  of  Goshen,  which  seems  to  have  included  the 
Wady  Tumilat  and  to  have  extended  westward  to  the  Nile 
delta.  Here  were  found  several  inscriptions  bearing  the 
Egyptian  name  of  the  city  P-Atum,  house  of  the  god  Atum. 
The  excavations  also  laid  bare  a  great  square  brick  wall  with 
the  ruins  of  store  chambers  inside.  These  rectangular 
chambers  were  of  various  sizes  and  were  surrounded  by  walls 
two  or  three  yards  in  thickness.  Contemporary  inscriptions 
indicate  that  they  were  filled  with  grain  from  the  top  and  were 
probably  used  for  the  storing  of  supplies  to  be  used  by  the 
armies  of  Ramses  II  in  their  Asiatic  campaigns.  This  city 
was  founded  by  Ramses  II,  who  during  the  first  twenty  years 
of  his  reign,  developed  and  colonized  the  territory  east  of  the 
Nile  delta  including  the  Biblical  land  of  Goshen.  A  contem- 
porary inscription  also  states  that  he  founded  near  Pithum  the 
house  of  Ramses,  a  city  with  a  royal  residence  and  temples. 
Thus  the  inferences  in  the  first  chapter  of  Exodus  regarding 
the  historical  background  are  in  perfect  accord  with  the  facts 
now  known  from  other  sources  regarding  the  reign  of  Ramses  II. 
In  transforming  the  land  of  Goshen  into  a  cultivated,  agri- 
cultural region  the  nomadic  Hebrews  were  naturally  put  to  task 
work  by  the  strong-handed  ruler  of  Egypt.  That  the  Hebrews 
were  restive  under  this  tyranny  was  natural,  inevitable.  Ap- 
parently their  rebellious  attitude  also  increased  the  burden 
which  was  placed  upon  them.  The  memory  of  the  crushing 
Hyksos  invasion,  which  meant  the  rule  of  Egypt  by  nomadic 
invaders  from  Asia,  was  still  fresh  in  the  minds  of  the  Egyptians. 
They  "both  looked  down  upon  and  feared  the  nomad  iromi- 
grants  on  their  eastern  border.  In  the  light  of  these  facts  it 
is  possible  to  understand  the  motives  which  influenced  Ramses  II 
cruelly  to  oppress  the  Hebrews.  He  endeavored,  by  forced 
labor  and  rigorous  peonage,  not  only  to  avail  himself  of  their 
needed  services,  but  also  to  crush  their  spirit  and  by  force  to 
hold  in  subjection  the  alarmingly  large  serf  class  which  was 
found  at  this  time  in  the  land  of  Egypt.  Was  any  other 
procedure  to  be  expected  from  a  despotic  ruler  of  that  land 
and  day? 


54  The  Making  of  a  Nation 

II. 

The  Making  of  a  Loyal  Patriot. 

The  story  of  Moses'  birth  and  early  childhood  is'^one  of  the 
most  interesting  chapters  in  Biblical  history.  It  is  full  of  human 
and  dramatic  interest.  The  great  crisis  in  Moses'  early  man- 
hood came  when  he  woke  to  a  realization  of  his  kinship  with  the 
despised  and  oppressed  serfs  and  an  appreciation  of  the  cruel 
injustice  of  which  they  were  the  helpless  victims.  Was  Moses 
justified  in  resisting  the  Egyptian  taskmaster?  Are  numbers 
essential  to  the  rightness  of  a  cause?  What  right  had  Ramses 
II  to  demand  forced  labor  from  the  immigrants  within  his 
border?  Was  he  justified  in  his  method  of  exacting  tribute? 
Is  peonage  always  disastrous  not  only  to  its  victims  but  also  to 
the  government  imposing  it? 

Did  Moses  show  himself  a  coward  in  fleeing  from  the  land  of 
Egypt?  Naturally  he  went  to  the  land  of  Midian.  The 
wilderness  to  the  east  of  Egypt  had  for  centuries  been  the  place 
of  refuge  for  Egyptian  fugitives.  From  about  2000  B.C.  there 
comes  the  Egyptian  story  of  Sinuhit,  an  Egyptian  prince,  who, 
to  save  his  life,  fled  eastward  past  the  ''Wall  of  the  Princes" 
which  guarded  the  northeastern  frontier  of  Egypt.  On  the 
borders  of  the  wilderness  he  found  certain  Bedouin  herdsmen 
who  received  him  hospitably.  These  ''sand  wanderers"  sent 
him  on  from  tribe  to  tribe  until  he  reached  the  land  of  Kedem, 
east  of  the  Dead  Sea,  where  he  remained  for  a  year  and  a  half. 
Later  he  found  his  way  to  the  court  of  one  of  the  local  kings  in 
central  Palestine  where  he  married  and  became  in  time  a  pros- 
perous local  prince. 

III. 
The  School  of  the  Wilderness., 

The  story  of  Moses  is  in  many  ways  closely  parallel  to  that  of 
Sinhuit.  Among  the  Midianite  tribes  Hving  to  the  south  and 
southeast  of  Palestine  he  found  refuge  and  generous  hospitality. 
The  priest  of  the  sub-tribe  of  the  Kenites  received  him  into  his 
home  and  gave  him  his  daughter  in  marriage.  Note  the  char- 
acteristic Oriental  idea  of  marriage.  Here  Moses  learned  the 
lessons  that  were  essential  for  his  training  as  the  leader  and  de- 
liverer of  his  people. 

The  Kenites  figure  in  later  Hebrew  history  as  worshippers 
of  Jehovah  and  are  frequently  associated  with  the  Israelites. 
After  the  capture  of  Jericho  certain  of  them  went  up  with  the 


The  Training  of  a  Statesman  55 

southern  tribes  to  conquer  southern  Palestine.  (Judg.  1 :  16.) 
It  was  Jael,  the  wife  of  Heber  the  Kenite  (Judg.  5:24),  who 
rendered  ^the  Hebrews  a  signal  service  by  slaying  Sisera,  the 
fleeing  king  of  the  Canaanites,  after  the  memorable  battle  beside 
the  River  Kishon.  Many  modern  scholars  draw  the  conclusion 
from  the  Biblical  narrative  that  it  was  from  the  Kenites  that 
Moses  first  learned  of  Yahweh  (or,  as  the  distinctive  name  of 
Israel's  God  was  translated  by  later  Jewish  scribes,  Jehovah). 
Furthermore  it  is  suggested  that  gratitude  to  the  new  God,  who 
delivered  the  Israelites  from  their  bondage,  was  the  reason  why 
they  proved  on  the  whole  so  loyal  to  Jehovah.  This  conclusion 
is  possible  and  in  many  ways  attractive,  but  it  is  beset  with 
serious  difficulties.  We  know,  in  ancient  history,  of  no  other 
example  of  a  people  suddenly^  changing  their  refigion.  When 
there  have  been  such  sudden  and  wholesale  conversions  in  later 
times  they  have  been  either  under  the  compulsion  of  the  sword, 
as  in  the  history  of  Islam,  or  under  the  influence  of  a  far  higher 
religion,  as  when  Christianity  has  been  carried  to  heathen  peo- 
ples on  a  low  stage  of  civilization.  Do  the  earfiest  Hebrew 
traditions  imply  that  the  ancestors  of  the  Israelites  were  wor- 
shippers of  Jehovah?  Is  it  not  probable  that  Moses  fled  to  the 
nomadic  Midianites  not  only  because  they  were  kinsmen  but 
because  they  were  also  worshippers  of  Jehovah? 

In  any  case  Moses'  life  in  Midian  tended  to  intensify  his  faith 
in  Jehovah.  The  title  of  his  father-in-law  implies  that  this 
priest  ministered  at  some  wilderness  sanctuary.  In  the  light 
of  the  subsequent  Biblical  narrative  was  this  possibly  at  the 
sacred  spring  of  Kadesh  or  on  the  top  of  the  holy  mountain 
Horeb  (elsewhere  called  Sinai)  where  Kenites  and  Hebrews  be- 
lieved that  Jehovah  dwelt,  or  at  least  manifested  himself? 
Moses,  in  the  home  of  the  Midian  priest,  was  brought  into 
direct  and  constant  contact  with  the  Jehovah  worship.  The 
cruel  fate  of  his  people  and  the  painful  experience  in  Egypt  that 
had  driven  him  into  the  wilderness  prepared  his  mind  to  receive 
this  training.  His  quest  was  for  a  just  and  strong  God,  able  to 
deliver  the  oppressed.  The  wilderness  with  its  lurking  foes  and 
the  ever-present  dread  of  hunger  and  thirst,  deepened  his  sense 
of  need  and  of  dependence  upon  a  power  able  to  guide  the  des- 
tinies of  men.  The  peasants  of  the  vast  Antolian  plain  in  cen- 
tral Asia  Minor  still  call  every  fife-giving  spring,  ''God  hath 
given."  The  constant  necessity  of  meeting  the  dangers  of  the 
wilderness  and  of  defending  the  flocks  entrusted  to  Moses'  care 


56  The  Making  of  a  Nation 

developed  his  courage  and  power  of  leadership  and  action. 
What  other  great  leaders  of  Israel  were  trained  in  this  same 
school?  What  was  the  effect  of  their  wilderness  life  upon  the 
early  New  England  pioneers? 

IV. 

Moses'  Call  to  Public  Service. 

The  solitude  of  the  wilderness  gave  Moses  ample  opportunity 
for  profound  reflection.  His  previous  experiences  made  such 
reflection  natural,  indeed  inevitable.  Borne  by  the  caravans 
over  the  great  highway  from  the  land  of  the  Nile  or  from  desert 
tribe  to  tribe  came  occasional  reports  of  the  cruel  injustice  to 
which  his  kinsmen  in  Egypt  were  subjected.  In  these  reports 
he  recognized  the  divine  call  to  duty.  When  perhaps  at  last 
the  report  came  that  the  mighty  despot  Ramses  II  was  dead, 
Moses  like  his  later  successor  Isaiah  (Is.  6)  saw  that  the  moment 
had  come  for  decision  and  action. 

It  looks  to  many  scholars  as  if  three  originally  distinct  versions 
of  Moses'  call  have  been  welded  together  in  the  narrative  of  Ex- 
odus 3,  4  and  6.  Each  differs  in  regard  to  detail  (Hist.  Bible  I, 
161-5) .  According  to  the  early  Judean  prophetic  account  Jehov- 
ah spoke  audibly  to  Moses  from  the  flaming  thorn  bush.  In  the 
Northern  Israehte  version  the  moment  of  decision  came  to  him  as 
he  stood  with  his  flock  on  the  sacred  mountain Horeb.  Like  Isaiah 
in  his  memorable  vision  of  Jehovah's  presence,  the  inner  con- 
sciousness of  God  and  the  compeUing  sense  of  duty  led  him  to 
cry  out:  "Here  am  I."  Likewise  in  the  late  priestly  story 
God's  presence  and  character  were  so  deeply  impressed  upon 
him  that  he  seemed  to  hear  an  audible  voice,  according  to  the 
view  of  those  who  accept  this  interpretation,  even  though 
the  later  priests  believed  and  taught  that  God  was  a  spirit,  not 
like  man  clothed  in  flesh  and  blood.  Thus  the  different  groups  of 
Hebrew  narratives  in  their  characteristic  way  record  the  essential 
facts  in  Moses'  call  to  public  service.  Each  has  preserved  certain 
important  elements  in  that  call,  and  the  late  editor  has  done  well 
to  combine  them.  Even  as  Isaiah  caught  his  supreme  vision  of 
Jehovah  and  of  duty  in  the  temple,  so  to  Moses  the  prophetic 
call  probably  came  on  the  lofty  heights  of  the  mountain  in  which 
he,  in  common  with  the  Kenites,  believed  God  dwelt.  The 
wilderness  with  its  flaming  bush  spoke  to  him  God's  message. 
Recent  writers  have  felt  and  forcibly  interpreted  the  fascina- 
tion and  the  message  of  the  desert  and  plain,   none  more 


The  Training  of  a  Statesman  57 

vividly  than  the  Welsh  writer  Rhoscomyl  in  describing  the 
experience  of  one  of  his  rough,  self-reliant  cowboy  heroes : 

''Two  days  ago  he  was  riding  back,  alone,  in  the  afternoon, 
from  an  unsuccessful  search  after  strayed  horses,  and  suddenly, 
all  in  the  lifting  of  a  hoof,  the  weird  prairie  had  gleamed  into 
eerie  life,  had  dropped  the  veil  and  spoken  to  him;  while  the 
breeze  stopped,  and  the  sun  stood  still  for  a  flash  in  waiting  for 
his  answer.  And  he,  his  heart  in  a  grip  of  ice,  the  frozen  flesh 
a-crawl  with  terror  upon  his  loosened  bones,  white-lipped  and 
wide-eyed  with  frantic  fear,  uttered  a  yell  of  horror  as  he  dashed 
the  spurs  into  his  panic-stricken  horse,  in  a  mad  endeavor  to 
escape  from  the  Awful  Presence  that  filled  all  earth  and  sky 
from  edge  to  edge  of  vision. 

''Then  almost  in  the  same  flash,  the  unearthly  light  died  out 
of  the  dim  prairie,  the  veil  swept  across  into  place  again;  and 
he  managed  to  check  his  wild  flight,  and  look  about  him.  His 
empty  lips  were  gibbering  without  a  sound  escaping  them,  and 
his  very  heart  shivered  with  cold,  for  all  the  brassy  heat  of  the 
day.  But  the  breeze  was  wandering  on  again;  under  the  great 
sun  the  prairie  spread  dim  to  the  southwest,  and  tawny  to  the 
northeast;  only  between  his  own  loose  knees  the  horse  trembled 
in  every  limb,  and  mumbled  the  bit  with  dry  mouth.  All  was 
as  before  in  earth  and  sky,  apparently,  but  not  in  his  own  self. 
It  was  as  if  his  spirit  stood  apart  from  him,  putting  questions 
which  he  could  not  answer,  and  demanding  judgment  upon 
problems  which  he  dare  not  reason  out. 

"Then  he  remembered  what  this  thing  was  which  had  hap- 
pened. The  prairie  had  spoken  to  him,  as  sooner  or  later  it 
spoke  to  most  men  that  rode  it.  It  was  a  something  well  known 
amongst  them,  but  known  without  words,  and  as  by  a  subtle 
instinct,  for  no  man  who  had  experienced  it  ever  spoke  willingly 
about  it  afterwards.  Only  the  man  would  be  changed;  some 
began  to  be  more  reckless,  as  if  a  dumb  blasphemy  rankled 
hidden  in  their  breasts.  Others,  coming  with  greater  strength 
perhaps  to  the  ordeal,  became  quieter,  looking  squarely  at  any 
danger  as  they  face  it,  but  continuing  ahead  as  though  quietly 
confident  that  nothing  happened  save  as  the  gods  ordained." 

The  motive  power  in  all  of  Moses'  later  work  was  that  trans- 
forming, vivid  sense  of  Jehovah's  presence  that  came  to  him  on 
the  barren  mountain  peak. 

Also  fundamental  to  his  call  was  the  recognition  of  the  cry- 
ing need  of  his  disorganized,  oppressed  kinsmen  in  Egypt. 


58  The  Making  of  a  Nation 

This  appealed  to  all  the  instincts  begotten  by  his  shepherd 
training;  for  they  were  a  shepherdless  flock  in  the  midst  of 
wolves.  Through  the  ages  the  inhabitants  of  the  parched, 
stony  wilderness  had  looked  with  hungry  eyes  upon  the  tree- 
clad  hills  and  green  fields  of  Palestine.  The  early  traditions 
of  his  ancestors  also  glorified  this  paradise  of  the  wilderness 
wanderer  and  led  Moses  to  look  to  it  as  the  haven  of  refuge  to 
which  he  might  lead  his  helpless  kinsmen.  Vividly  and  con- 
cretely the  ancient  narrative  tells  of  the  struggle  in  the  mind 
of  Moses  between  his  own  diffidence  and  consciousness  of  his 
limitations  on  the  one  side  and  on  the  other  his  sense  of  duty 
and  the  realization  of  Jehovah's  power  to  accompHsh  what 
seemed  to  man  miraculous.  Was  Moses'  inner  experience  like 
that  of  the  other  great  Hebrew  prophets?  Who?  Like  that 
of  Jesus?  Does  every  man  who  undertakes  a  great  service  for 
humanity  to-day  pass  through  a  somewhat  similar  struggle? 
How  about  Grant  on  leaving  his  home  at  Galena,  lUinois? 
Lincoln  at  the  great  crisis  of  his  life? 


The  Education  of  Public  Opinion. 

Like  every  man  who  catches  a  vision  of  a  great  need  and 
undertakes  to  meet  it,  Moses  had  to  educate  public  opinion. 
Whatever  the  form  of  government  may  be,  whether  monarchy 
or  democracy,  it  must  ultimately  rest  upon  the  will  of  the  peo- 
ple, and  the  shaping  of  that  will  is  often  a  statesman's  task. 
In  a  democracy  the  expression  of  the  people's  will  is  readily 
determined  at  every  election,  although  in  many  cases,  owing 
to  the  number  of  issues,  this  result  is  not  clearly  seen. 

In  a  despotism  like  Egypt  there  is  no  readj^  expression  of  a 
people's  will.  However  great  their  sufferings,  they  must  en- 
dure until  they  feel  that  the  evils  of  revolt  are  less  than  the  evils 
of  oppression.  Then,  by  means  of  a  revolution,  they  carry  out 
their  will.  In  what  ways  did  the  Exodus  resemble,  in  what 
ways  differ  from  a  revolution?  Compare  Moses  with  Washing- 
ton or  Samuel  Adams  as  leader  of  a  revolution.  During  the 
last  few  years  in  China  there  has  been  great  dissatisfaction  on 
the  part  of  many  millions  of  the  people  with  the  rule  of  the 
Manchu  dynasty.  It  was,  nevertheless,  for  many  years  the 
people's  will  rather  to  endure  the  evils  of  a  corrupt  government 
than  to  take  the  risk  of  war.  At  length,  however,  after  years 
of  propaganda  by  skilful  leaders  war  appeared  to  them  the  lesser 


The  Training  of  a  Statesman  59 

evil  and  their  will  was  carried  out  by  force  of  arms.  The  govern- 
ment, in  this  direct  way,  was  forced  to  recognize  the  will  of  the 
people  and  to  grant  their  requests. 

A  statesman  considers  not  merely  his  own  views  regarding 
the  best  methods  of  governing  his  country  or  of  gaining  special 
ends,  but  he  must  carefully  consider  also  what  plans  can  in 
practice  be  carried  out.  In  all  free  governments  only  those 
policies  can  be  put  into  effect  that  meet  the  approval  of  the  peo- 
ple; and  one  of  the  greatest  gifts  of  a  statesman  is  the  ability 
to  ascertain,  with  few  mistakes,  how  far  his  proposed  policies 
meet  the  pubhc  will  and  how  he  can  so  put  his  plans  before  the 
people  as  to  convince  them  of  their  benefits. 

In  the  later  days  of  the  Egyptian  bondage  the  Israelites  made 
frequent  complaint  of  the  oppression  of  the  Pharaohs,  bemoan- 
ing their  fate  as  serfs,  but  for  many  years  after  their  sufferings 
had  become  severe  they  had  not  yet  been  roused  to  a  determina- 
tion to  throw  off  the  yoke  of  the  oppressor.  Even  when  Moses 
first  attempted  to  rouse  them  to  make  a  struggle  for  freedom, 
he  could  not  breathe  into  them  his  own  bold  spirit.  What 
measures  did  Moses  take  to  incite  the  Israelites  to  action? 
What  measures  did  he  take  to  convince  Pharaoh  of  his  duty  to- 
ward the  Israelites?  Did  he  present  his  case  truthfully?  Was 
he  justified  in  the  measures  taken? 

At  length,  not  from  the  acts  of  the  Israelites,  but  from  the 
plagues  that  afflicted  the  Egyptians  and  the  insistent  demand 
of  Moses,  coupled  with  the  belief  that  the  plagues  were  sent  on 
account  of  divine  displeasure,  as  a  punishment  for  unjust  op- 
pression, the  Hebrews  were  enabled  to  escape.  What  is  the 
contemporary  Egyptian  testimony  regarding  the  plagues? 
(Hist.  Bible  I,  176-7.)  Do  the  earliest  Hebrew  records  imply 
that  these  were  miracles  or  natural  calamities  peculiar  to  the 
land  of  Egypt?  The  statesmanship  of  Moses  led  him  to  seize 
the  opportune  time  for  freeing  his  people  from  bondage.  Only 
the  influence  of  the  religious  sentiments  among  his  people  and 
their  belief  in  Jehovah  together  with  the  religious  awe  felt  by 
the  Egyptian  rulers,  enabled  him  to  take  advantage  of  the  cir- 
cumstances so  that  he  could  rescue  his  people.  In  most  coun- 
tries religion  is  a  powerful  influence  often  made  use  of  by  rulers, 
sometimes  for  good,  sometimes  for  ill,  to  direct  the  action  of 
their  subjects.  The  Greek  church  in  Russia  has  for  many  dec- 
ades been,  perhaps,  the  most  important  weapon  b}'  which  the 
Russian  Czars  have  kept  their  people  in  peaceful  submission. 


60  The  Making  of  a  Nation 

If  China  loses  her  Mongolian  provinces,  it  will  be  because  the 
rehgious  leaders  of  Mongolia  are  controlling  their  people.  Can 
you  give  in  the  United  States  an  example  of  a  people  largely 
dominated  by  the  religious  motive  which  controls  most  of 
the  affairs  of  their  every-day  life?  How  far  was  the  religious 
motive  responsible  for  the  settlement  and  upbuilding  of  the 
New  England  Colonies?  How  far  and  in  what  ways  may  a 
statesman  to-day  appeal  to  the  moral  and  rehgious  feelings  of 
the  people  in  order  to  promote  national  and  international 
welfare? 

VI. 

The  Tkaining  of  Modern  Statesmen. 

In  training  administrative  officers  in  the  leading  countries  of 
Europe  and  in  the  United  States,  emphasis  is  laid  upon  a  knowl- 
edge of  history,  of  constitutional,  administrative  and  inter- 
national law,  politics,  economics,  diplomacy  and  any  other 
subjects  that  may  fall  within  the  scope  of  action  of  the  special 
official.  When,  however,  a  law-maker  or  a  high  administrative 
official  deals  at  first  hand  with  a  great  population,  it  is  extremely 
important  that  he  be  so  experienced  and  so  fitted  by  tempera- 
ment that  he  may  know  his  people.  He  must  see  how  far  he 
can  go  without  arousing  too  much  opposition.  Even  in  pro- 
moting good  measures,  it  is  often  essential  not  to  go  too  fast, 
if  he  is  to  succeed. 

Every  statesman  of  modern  times,  as  well  as  those  of  bygone 
days,  must  have  the  interests  of  the  people  genuinely  at  heart 
if  he  is  to  be,  in  the  best  sense  of  the  word,  successful.  What 
did  Moses  seek  for  his  people?  Liberty?  Prosperity?  Re- 
ligious freedom? 

Confucius,  the  great  Chinese  sage,  from  his  study  of  human 
nature  and  of  government  five  centuries  before  Christ,  had 
learned  that  the  rule  of  justice  in  the  state  promoted  prosperity. 
At  length  a  young  ruler  made  him  his  prime  minister.  The 
result  of  his  wise  and  just  measures  was  to  bring  into  his  coun- 
try so  large  a  number  of  immigrants  who  preferred  to  live  in  a 
country  where  justice  reigned,  that  the  prosperity  aroused  the 
envy  and  hostility  of  the  neighboring  states.  In  consequence 
measures  were  taken  to  put  an  end  to  this  just  rule,  which  was 
felt  to  be  so  detrimental  to  other  kings,  unwilling  to  adopt  the 
same  just  means.  Finally  the  wise  Confucius  was  treacher- 
ously driven  from  his  post,  not,  however,  until  he  had  proved 


The  Training  of  a  Statesman  61 

that  the  counsels  of  justice  and  religion  were  those  best  suited 
to  the  welfare  of  the  state.  This  is  a  common  experience  in  all 
lands  and  ages;  but  perhaps  nowhere  else  has  the  lesson  been  so 
frequently  and  so  thoroughly  taught  as  in  the  history  of  the 
Hebrews,  that  the  most  essential  factor  in  a  statesman's  train- 
ing is  the  acceptance  of  the  principles  of  justice  and  righteous- 
ness. In  other  words  —  "God  is  the  most  important  factor 
in  human  progress." 

Questions  for  Further  Consideration. 

Is  it  the  duty  of  a  government,  in  order  to  promote  the  welfare  of  its 
people,  to  set  aside  at  times  the  personal  convenience,  even  the  personal 
welfare  of  individuals  or  of  certain  classes?  If  an  inheritance  tax  faUs 
heavily  upon  the  heirs  of  a  rich  man,  ought  the  state  to  collect  it?  On 
what  grounds  is  a  state  justified  in  withholding  hberty  from  criminals? 
From  children? 

Many  of  our  states  compel  citizens  to  work  in  repairing  country  roads. 
Is  this  temporary  peonage?  How  do  you  justify  a  state  in  compeUing 
citizens  to  risk  their  Uves  in  war?  In  what  circunastances  would  a  state  be 
justified  in  compeUing  its  citizens  to  labor?  Did  circumstances  justify 
Pharaoh?     Why  were  he  and  his  kingdom  punished? 

Is  it  ever  right  for  an  individual  to  raise  lus  hand  against  a  recognized  and 
estabUshed  authority?  Or,  when  there  is  an  estabUshed  government, 
should  an  individual  ever  attempt  to  punish  crime  or  avenge  personal 
wrong?  Were  our  revolutionary  forefathers  right  in  resisting  the  demands 
of  King  George?    Are  numbers  essential  to  the  rightness  of  a  cause? 

In  what  ways  does  God  to-day  call  men  to  do  an  important  task?  Do 
you  consider  Lincoln  a  man  raised  up  by  God  for  a  purpose  and  called  by 
him  to  service?  If  so,  how  did  the  call  come?  Was  Moses'  caU  similar? 
Should  a  clergyman  have  a  definite  caU  to  his  fife-work?  Should  every 
man?  Does  every  man  have  such  a  caU,  if  he  but  interprets  rightly  his 
experiences? 

A  working  girl  had  seen  the  story  of  Moses  at  a  moving  picture  show. 
Afterwards  she  commented  as  foUows:  "Our  walking  delegate  is  a  regular 
Moses.  He  said  to  the  factory  boss,  'You  let  my  people  go.'  "  In  what 
respect  is^the  labor  struggle  to-day  similar  to  that  in  Egypt  under  Moses? 

Subjects  for  Further  Study. 

(1)  The  Egyptian  System  of  Education.  Breasted,  Hist,  of  the  Ancient 
Egyptians,  92-94,  395;  Hist,  of  Egypt,  98-100;  Maspero,  Dawn  of  Civiliza- 
tion, 288;  Erman,  Life  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians,  328-368. 

(2)  Origin  of  the  Jehovah  Refigion.  Budde,  Religion  of  Israel,  1-38; 
Gordon,  Early  Traditions  of  Gen.,  106-110;  Hastings,  Did.  of  the  Bible, 
Extra  Vol.  626-627. 

(3)  The  Practical  Training  for  Statesmanship  of  Augustus,  Gladstone  and 
Lincoln.  Plutarch,  Lives  of  the  Emperors;  Morley,  Life  of  Gladstone;  A 
good  Biographical  Dictionary;  Brown,  The  Message  of  the  Modern  Pulpit. 

(4)  Compare  the  government  of  Egypt  under  Pharaoh  with  thatin  China 
in  the  days  of  Confucius  and  with  that  of  Greece  in  the  days  of  the  siege  of 
Troy.    Homer,  Iliad  and  Odyssey;  Life  of  Confucius. 


62  The  Making  of  a  Nation 

STUDY  IX 

THE  ORIGIN  AND  GROWTH  OF  LAW. 

Moses'  Work  as  Judge  and  Prophet. — Ex.  18: 1-27;  33: 5-11. 

Parallel  References. 
Hist.  Bible  I,  198-203. 
Prin.  of  Politics,  Ch.  VI. 
Maine,  Ancient  Law. 

Jehovah  spake  to  Moses  face  to  face,  as  a  man  speaketh  unto  his  friend. 
—Ex.  33: 11. 

And  Moses  chose  able  men  out  of  all  Israel,  and  made  them  heads  over 
the  people,  rulers  of  thousands,  rulers  of  hundreds,  rulers  of  fifties,  and 
rulers  of  tens.  And  they  judged  the  people  at  all  seasons:  the  hard  cases 
they  brought  unto  Moses,  but  every  small  matter  they  judged  themselves. 
—Ex.  18:  25,  26. 

Love  is  the  fulfilling  of  the  law. — St.  Paul. 
Now  this  is  the  Law  of  the  Jungle  —  as  old  and  as  true  as  the  sky; 
And  the  WoK  that  shall  keep  it  may  prosper,  but  the  WoK  that  shall  break 

it  must  die. 
As  the  creeper  that  girdles  the  tree-trunk  the  Law  runneth  forward  and 

back  — 
For  the  strength  of  the  Pack  is  the  Wolf,  and  the  strength  of  the  Wolf  is 

the  Pack. 
Now  these  are  the  Laws  of  the  Jungle,  and  many  and  mighty  are  they; 
But  the  head  and  the  hoof  of  the  Law  and  the  haunch  and  the  hump  is 
''Obey!'' 

— Kipling. 
Nothing  is  that  errs  from  law. — Tennyson. 

In  vain  we  call  old  notions  fudge. 

And  bend  conventions  to  our  dealing, 
The  Ten  Commandments  will  not  budge, 

And  stealing  still  continues  stealing.;^ 

If  chosen  men  could  never  be  alone. 

In  deep  mid-silence,  opcn-doored  with  God 

No  greatness  ever  had  been  dreamed  or  done. 

These  roots  bear  up  Dominion :  Knowledge,  Will,  — 
These  twain  are  strong,  but  stronger  yet  the  third,  — 

Obedience,  —  'tis  the  great  tap-root  that  still. 
Knit  round  the  rock  of  Duty,  is  not  stirred. 

Though  Heaven-loosed  tempests  spend  their  utmost  skill. 

— Lowell  (The  Washers  of  the  Shroud). 

I. 

The  Needs  that  Give  Rise  to  Law. 
Kipling's  Law  of  the  Jungle,  in  which  he  lays  down  the  prin- 
ciples by  which  the  wolf  pack  secured  united  action  in  its  hunt- 


— Lowell. 


The  Origin  and  Growth  of  Law  63 

ing,  names  the  rules  that  apply  almost  universally  to  peoples 
in  the  savage  stage  of  society.  According  to  the  researches  of 
the  best  anthropologists,  savages  live  in  very  loosely  organized 
groups,  with  no  permanent  ruler,  no  regular  family  law.  Each 
separate  group  has  its  totem,  its  general  rules  with  reference 
to  the  marriage  relation,  to  hunting  and  fishing,  to  shelter  and 
protection.  Practically  there  are  no  regular  laws.  The  rules 
fixed  by  custom  deal  primarily  with  the  marriage  relation  and 
with  the  securing  of  food  and  shelter.  They  are  largely  nega- 
tive. If  a  member  of  the  group  has  met  with  a  misfortune 
in  a  certain  by-path  or  from  eating  certain  food  or  in  other 
ways,  by*  the  action  of  the  leader  of  his  group  that  path  or  that 
food  becomes  taboo,  and  from  that  time  on  it  is  forbidden. 
The  rules  seem  generally  to  be  largely  the  product  of  instinct 
or  of  experience,  without  any  law  making,  and  they  are  enforced 
almost  as  instinctively  by  the  common  consent  of  the  people. 

II. 

The  Growth  of  Customary  Law. 

As  this  loosely  associated  group  condenses  into  the  tribe,  all 
the  members  of  which  regard  themselves  as  descended  from  a 
common  ancestor,  the  organization  becomes  much  more  definite 
under  a  patriarchal  ruler.  Soon  through  his  activities  these 
almost  instinctive  habits,  guided  by  rules,  assume  the  nature 
of  customs  that  have  a  sanction,  often  of  religion,  practically 
always  of  enforcement  through  the  patriarch.  No  better  illus- 
tration of  the  crystallization  of  customs  into  laws  can  be  found 
than  that  given  in  Exodus  18:1-27  {Hist.  Bible,  I,  198-202). 
Moses  sat  all  day  long  as  judge  to  decide  cases  for  the  people 
until  his  practical-minded  father-in-law,  Jethro,  seeing  the  waste 
of  time  and  energy  of  the  ruler  upon  whom  the  welfare  of  the 
tribe  depended,  proposed  a  wise  plan.  He  advised  that,  in- 
stead of  rendering  decisions  regarding  each  individual  case, 
Moses  should  formulate  the  principles  and  leave  their  applica- 
tion to  minor  judges  appointed  by  himself  as  rulers  over  thou- 
sands and  over  hundreds  and  fifties  and  tens.  In  modern  days 
the  law-making  body  is  distinct  from  the  judicial.  Is  there 
any  reason  why  the  judge  should  not  be  the  maker  of  the  law 
he  interprets? 

Doubtless  many  of  the  customs  thus  formulated  by  Moses 
had  come  down  through  the  preceding  ages  from  the  Babylonian 
and  common  Semitic  ancestors  of  the  Hebrews.    The  most 


64  The  Making  of  a  Nation 

striking  example  of  the  pre-Mosaic  formulation  of  custom  into 
law  under  the  sanction  of  the  deity  is  found  in  the  so-called 
code  of  Hammurabi,  which  comes  from  about  1900  B.C.  At 
the  top  of  the  stele  which  records  these  laws  this  enhghtened 
king  depicted  himself  in  a  bas-relief  as  receiving  them  from  the 
sun  god,  Shamash.  Hammurabi  looked  upon  himself  as  a 
shepherd  chosen  by  the  gods  to  care  for  his  people.  It  was  his 
duty  to  see  ''that  the  great  should  not  oppress  the  weak,  to 
counsel  the  widow  and  orphan,  to  render  judgment  and  decide 
the  decisions  of  the  land,  and  to  succor  the  injured, '^  in  order 
that ''  by  the  command  of  Shamash,  the  judge  supreme  of  heaven 
and  earth,  justice  might  shine  in  the  land.''  Many  of  the 
principles  laid  down  by  him  are  also  found  among  the  laws 
attributed  to  Moses  which  were  afterward  codified  in  the  early 
decalogues. 

At  times,  though  rarely  among  the  Hebrews,  we  may  study 
custom  in  the  making,  as  when  in  a  new  situation  a  ruler  renders 
a  decision  which  henceforth  becomes  a  law.  Thus  David, 
dividing  the  spoil  after  his  victory  over  the  Amalekites,  estab- 
lished a  precedent  that  henceforth  had  binding  force  upon  his 
followers  (I  Sam.  30);  but  in  the  majority  of  such  cases  the 
ruler,  even  when  he  establishes  new  precedents,  represents  him- 
self as  simply  interpreting  ancient  custom. 

As  society  becomes  more  and  more  complex  and  the  interests 
of  individuals  and  classes  in  society  clash,  besides  the  judges 
we  find  legislatures  making  new  rules  in  the  form  of  law.  In 
the  earlier  communities  practically  all  law  relates  to  the  pres- 
ervation of  life  and  of  the  tribe.  Later,  as  the  tribe  enters 
the  pastoral  state,  private  property  is  established  and  laws  for 
its  care  are  made.  Still  later,  with  the  development  of  a  higher 
civilization  and  with  the  individual  conscience  stimulating  men 
to  care  for  the  welfare  not  merely  of  their  family,  but  of  their 
nation,  legislation  considers  primarily  the  welfare  of  society. 
Yet,  as  one  of  our  great  judges  has  lately  explained,  in  practi- 
cally all  stages  of  society,  whenever  the  population  becomes 
numerous  and  business  is  so  developed  that  we  may  recognize 
different  classes  in  a  community,  legislation  has  been  primarily 
in  the  interests  of  a  ruling  class,  often  at  the  expense  of  the  other 
classes.  This  principle  is  illustrated  by  certain  of  the  later 
Jewish  ceremonial  laws  that  brought  to  the  priests  a  large  in- 
come at  the  expense  of  the  people.     Many  laws  in  Europe  and 


The  Origin  and  Growth  of  Law  65 

in  the  United  States  to-day  have  been  made  clearly  in  the 
interests  of  certain  classes  in  society.     Can  you  think  of  some? 

III. 
The  Authority  Underlying  All  Law. 

Back  of  all  laws  and  rules,  as  the  fundamental  consideration, 
whether  consciously  expressed  in  laws  or  carried  out  instinc- 
tively, lies  the  welfare  of  society.  Among  the  wolves  the  pack 
that  is  best  disciplined  by  the  strongest  and  most  successful 
leader  is  the  one  that  survives.  In  the  earlier  savage  groups 
the  rules  which  guided  united  action  grew  up  as  a  result  of  suc- 
cessful experience  in  securing  food  and  warding  off  enemies. 
Among  them  the  less  disciplined,  the  less  intelligently  directed 
groups  perish. 

Through  his  fear  of  the  unknown,  stimulated  by  the  terrible 
vindications  of  nature's  laws,  when  poison  and  pestilence  and 
storms  and  floods  do  their  deadly  work,  the  savage  feels  the 
presence  of  unknown  forces  that  he  calls  gods,  and  he  thus  gives 
to  his  rules  of  action  the  sanction  of  divinity.  And  as  society 
develops  through  the  pastoral,  agricultural  and  industrial 
stages  into  the  tribe  and  state,  with  the  development  of  reli- 
gion and  the  growing  sense  of  right  and  of  responsibility  to  one's 
fellow  men,  this  religious  sanction  of  the  law  still  abides.  In  the 
earlier  days  the  sanction  was  due  to  fear  of  the  vengeance  of  the 
gods.  In  later  society  it  is  the  sense  of  right  and  justice  and 
love  for  one's  fellow  men,  springing  from  the  firm  belief  in  the 
divine  creation  and  direction  of  the  universe  and  in  God's  care 
for  men. 

But  as  this  sense  of  fear  or  right  or  justice  or  love,  associated 
with  a  Being  felt  to  be  divine,  is  not  universal,  inasmuch  as  many 
members  of  society  are  found  ready  to  act  selfishly,  taking  the 
law  into  their  own  hands,  force  is  needed  in  all  stages  of  society 
to  put  the  rules  and  laws  into  effect.  With  every  law,  as  Austin 
says,  must  go  a  penalty.  But  as  society  grows  more  and  more 
humane  the  sense  of  obligation  of  each  individual  for  the  welfare 
of  his  fellows  grows,  until  in  the  best  society  laws  are  made  and 
obeyed  by  most  citizens,  not  from  a  sense  of  fear  of  punishment, 
but  mairdy  out  of  goodwill  to  others.  A  sense  of  justice  pre- 
vails and  the  sanction  of  law  becomes  not  so  much  fear  of  the 
penalty  imposed,  as  the  moral  and  rehgious  sense  of  the  in- 
dividual and  of  society.  Why,  for  example,  do  you  obey  the 
law  against  stealing? 


66  The  Making  of  a  Nation 

IV. 

Moses'  Relation  to  the  Old  Testament  Laws. 
The  Hebrew  laws  given  in  the  Old  Testament  are  generaKy 
known  as  the  laws  of  Moses,  and  the  assumption  of  many  read- 
ers in  earlier  years  has  been  that  the  different  codes  were  prac- 
tically formulated  by  Moses  himself.  The  subsequent  study 
of  the  Old  Testament  long  ago  suggested  to  many  that  this 
view  may  be  mistaken.  The  oldest  records  of  his  work  and 
the  fact  that,  as  creator  of  the  Hebrew  nation  after  the  Exodus 
and  as  leader  and  prophet  he  rendered  important  judicial 
decisions,  have  well  justified  the  belief  that  he  was  the  real 
founder  of  what  is  called  the  Mosaic  Law.  As  stated  in  Exodus 
18,  he  did  actually  formulate  the  principles  by  which  decisions 
were  made  by  the  rulers  whom  he  appointed  over  thousands 
and  over  hundreds,  fifties  and  tens.  He  may  have  even 
put  into  form  the  principles  found  in  the  earliest  decalogues. 
Moreover,  as  the  Israelites  in  their  later  history  were  led 
to  formulate  new  rules  of  action,  they  based  these  upon  the 
principles  of  justice,  religion  and  civil  equality  found  in  the 
earlier  decalogues.  While  the  specific  rules  of  living  must 
have  changed  materially,  as  the  Israelites  changed  their  habits 
of  living  from  those  of  wanderers  in  the  wilderness  to  those 
adapted  to  their  early  settlements  in  Canaan  and  afterward 
to  the  settled  conditions  under  the  monarchy,  they  would 
still  base  their  laws  upon  these  earlier  principles.  Hence 
it  was  not  unnatural  to  ascribe  the  origin  of  these  laws  to 
Moses,  nor  is  it  to-day  inaccurate  to  speak  of  them  as  the  Mosaic 
code,  even  though  they  may  have  been  put  into  their  present 
form  at  different  periods  remote  from  one  another,  and  by  rulers, 
prophets  and  priests  whose  occupations  and  attitude  toward 
life  were  widely  different.  Back  of  practically  all  these  laws  are 
the  fundamental  beliefs  that  the  Israelites  are  the  people  chosen 
of  God,  that  to  him  they  owe  allegiance  and  that  from  him  they 
derive,  in  principle  at  least,  the  laws  under  which  they  live. 

V. 

The  Development  of  Modern  Law. 

Not  merely  the  Hebrews,  but  practically  all  ancient  nations 

ascribe  the  origin  of  their  laws  either  to  a  deity  or  to  some  great 

ancestral  hero.     As  already  noted,  the  code  of  Hammurabi  is 

represented  as  having  been  given  to  him  directly  by  the  god 


The  Origin  and  Growth  of  Law  67 

Shamash.  In  the  early  days  of  Greek  history,  the  laws  of  Solon 
and  Draco  were  formulated.  In  India  we  find  the  laws  of  Manu, 
in  China  the  teachings  of  Confucius,  and  so  on  throughout  all 
of  the  great  nations.  In  some  instances,  doubtless,  many  of 
the  laws  were  actually  formulated  under  the  direction  of  the 
person  to  whom  they  are  ascribed;  but  in  many  others,  as 
perhaps  in  the  case  of  the  Mosaic  code,  there  was  some  great 
judge  or  king  under  whose  direction  certain  principles  were  laid 
down  and  simple  laws  or  precedents  established,  and  as  a  result 
all  later  developments  were  ascribed  to  him. 

In  modern  times,  when  legislative  bodies  are  found  in  limited 
monarchies  as  well  as  in  republics,  the  methods  of  legislation  are 
necessarily  different.  Although  chosen  bodies  of  men  come  to- 
gether to  legislate  for  the  benefit  of  society,  as  represented  by 
the  state,  there  is  still  a  normal  tendency  for  the  ruling  class  to 
feel  that  it  is  to  a  great  extent  the  state,  and  it  does  not  forget 
its  own  needs.  This  class  legislation  was  doubtless  existent 
to  a  certain  extent  even  when  the  laws,  supposed  to  be  of  divine 
origin,  were  formulated  by  prophets  and  priests,  for  the  real 
public  character  of  the  laws  was  dependent  primarily  upon  the 
unselfish  beliefs,  social  and  religious,  of  the  writers,  whether 
kings  or  priests.  No  one  is  able  to  free  himself  entirely  from 
the  influence  of  class  prejudice. 

Like  the  legislatures  the  courts  even  are  also  the  product  of 
their  times,  though  naturally  conservative.  No  law  can  long 
exactly  fit  changing  conditions.  The  judge  must  adapt  a  law 
made  by  one  generation  to  the  needs  of  the  next.  In  so  doing 
he  bends  it  to  suit  his  times,  and  to  further  the  welfare  of  his 
state. 

If  aeroplanes  carrying  goods  from  Pennsylvania  to  New  York 
over  the  State  of  New  Jersey  let  them  fall  and  damage  the  prop- 
erty of  a  resident  of  New  Jersey,  can  our  courts  invoke  the 
Interstate  Commerce  Law  made  before  aeroplanes  were  in- 
vented? 

And  yet  there  has  been  throughout  the  individual  history  of 
each  nation  a  gradual  improvement  in  the  living  conditions 
of  the  masses  of  people,  even  in  the  tribal  state.  As  it  proved 
more  profitable  to  preserve  a  worker  than  to  kill  him,  captives 
in  war  were  not  slain,  but  enslaved.  As  society  became  more 
settled,  the  custom  of  personally  avenging  one's  wrong  by  slay- 
ing an  enemy  was  modified.  Cities  of  refuge  were  established, 
where  innocent  victims  might  escape  the  avengers.     All  down 


68  The  Making  of  a  Nation 

through  the  ages  there  has  been  a  growing  tendency  to  adapt 
the  punishment  to  the  crime,  to  temper  justice  with  mercy, 
to  realize  that  the  aim  of  all  law  is  not  vengeance  or  punishment, 
but  the  promotion  of  the  best  interests  of  society  through  the 
wise  administration  of  justice. 

VI. 

The  Attitude  of  the  Citizens  toward  the  Law. 

Among  savages,  as  has  been  said,  there  is  no  formulation  of 
law.  There  is  the  instinct  of  the  individual  to  preserve  his  own 
life,  and  there  are  rules  that  must  be  followed  if  the  people  are 
to  survive.  As  has  been  truly  said:  ^'The  love  of  justice  is 
simply  in  the  majority  of  men  the  fear  of  suffering  injustice." 
The  instinct  of  preservation  and  sheer  necessity  compel  the  peo- 
ple almost  unconsciously  to  follow  the  rules  of  their  leader. 

In  most  patriarchal  societies  the  fear  of  the  god  of  the  tribe, 
the  overpowering  influence  of  custom  and  the  unswerving 
directness  of  the  punishment  of  the  man  who  violates  it  tend  to 
prevent  the  development  of  individuality  and  of  independent 
thinking;  and  the  normal  attitude  of  practically  every  person  is  to 
obey  the  customs  and  the  laws,  although  often  those  laws  leave 
to  the  individual  a  range  of  action  not  found  in  later  civilized 
states.  But  as  the  sense  of  right  and  justice  and  the  desire  to 
promote  the  public  welfare  grow,  individualism  grows  also. 
Each  individual,  thrown  upon  his  own  resources,  learns  to  think 
and  question  and  judge.  In  democratic  states  he  learns  to  take 
upon  himself  the  responsibility  for  his  acts,  and  at  length  the 
view  becomes  prevalent  that  law  exists  for  the  benefit  of  society. 
The  individual,  in  judging  himself  and  his  attitude  toward 
society,  feels  that  the  law  must  be  obeyed  because  obedience 
promotes  the  public  welfare.  Even  when  he  believes  that  a 
law  is  unwise,  or  even  unjust,  he  hesitates  to  violate  it,  not  only 
because  he  might  be  punished  therefor,  but  primarily  because  it 
has  become  wrong,  according  to  his  conscience,  to  violate  a  law 
that  has  been  adopted  by  the  representatives  of  his  fellow 
citizens  as  just  and  beneficial.  Thus  the  individual,  in  later 
even  more  than  in  earlier  times,  obeys  the  laws  not  merely 
from  selfish,  but  from  social  and  religious  motives. 

Questions  for  Further  Consideration. 
Can  you  name  any  modern  laws  that  you  think  have  been  framed  in  the 
interests  of  a  special  social  class? 


The  Origin  and  Growth  of  Law  69 

Do  you  think  that  the  people  of  to-day  are  recreant  in  their  respect  for 
or  adherence  to  law? 

What  do  you  consider  to  be  the  value  of  such  institutions  as  those  at 
West  Point  and  Annapolis  in  their  influence  on  the  enforcement  of  law  and 
discipUne? 

When  we  speak  of  "  Government  of  the  people,  by  the  people,  and  for  the 
people, ' '  whom  exactly  do  we  mean  by  ' '  people ' '  ?  Does  the  word  have  the 
same  meaning  in  each  of  these  phrases? 

Is  it  ever  right  to  violate  a  law  of  the  land?  Some  people  contend  that 
an  individual  ought  to  break  a  human  law,  provided  that  it  is  contrary  to 
divine  law.  What  is  divine  law?  Who  decides?  Shall  the  individual 
decide,  or  is  that  the  duty  of  the  community?  Or  of  the  clergy?  Was  it 
right  for  the  Abolitionists  to  violate  the  provisions  of  the  fugitive  slave  law? 
Were  this  handful  of  men,  able  and  conscientious  as  they  were,  as  Ukely 
to  be  right  regarding  the  welfare  of  society  as  the  large  majority  of  citizens 
whose  representatives  had  enacted  the  fugitive  slave  law?  If  a  person 
beHeves  our  tariff  laws  to  be  unjust,  is  it  right  for  him  to  smuggle  goods? 

Under  what  circumstances,  if  any,  is  it  one's  duty  to  disobey  a  law  of  the 
state?  Would  the  fact  that  an  individual  beheyed  it  his  duty  to  violate 
the  law  justify  a  judge  in  dechning  to  punish  him?  Thoreau  declined  to 
pay  a  tax  that  he  believed  unjust  and  accepted  his  punishment,  declaring 
that  if  he  paid  the  penalty  he  might  thus  arouse  pubUc  sentiment  and  secure 
the  repeal  of  the  law.  Was  John  Brown  justified  in  attempting  illegally 
to  free  slaves  by  force  of  arms? 

In  Great  Britain  the  House  of  Lords — one  of  the  law-making  bodies — 
is  also  the  highest  court  of  appeal,  although  the  judicial  business  is  mostly 
done  by  law  lords  specially  appointed  for  that  purpose.  Ought  the  same 
men  to  make  and  interpret  the  law?    Why? 

Subjects  for  Further  Study. 

(1)  Origin  and  Growth  of  Hebrew  Law.  Hastings,  Did.  of  Bible,  III, 
64-67;  Ency.  Bib.,  Ill,  2714r-8;  Kent,  Israel's  Laws  and  Legal  Precedents, 
IV,  8-15. 

(2)  Growth  of  Primitive  Law.  Maine,  Ancient  Law,  109-165;  Wilson, 
The  State,  1-29. 

(3)  Judicial  Decisions  as  a  Factor  in  the  Development  of  Modern  Law. 
Prin.  of  Politics,  Chap.  VI;  Ransom,  Majority  Rule  and  the  Judiciary. 


70  The  Making  of  a  Nation 

STUDY  X 

THE  FOUNDATIONS  OF  GOOD  CITIZENSHIP. 
The  Ten  Commandments. — Ex.  20:1-17. 

Parallel  Readings. 
Hist.  Bible  I,  194-198. 
Prin.  of  Politics,  Chap.  II. 
Lowell,  Essay  on  "Democracy." 

Thou  shalt  have  no  other  gods  before  me. 

Thou  shalt  not  make  unto  thee  a  graven  image. 

Thou  shalt  not  take  the  name  of  Jehovah  thy  God  in  vain. 

Remember  the  sabbath  day,  to  keep  it  holy. 

Honor  thy  father  and  thy  mother. 

Thou  shalt  not  kill. 

Thou  shalt  not  commit  adultery. 

Thou  shalt  not  steal. 

Thou  shalt  not  bear  false  witness  against  thy  neighbor. 

Thou  shalt  not  covet  thy  neighbor's  house.^^a;.  20: 3-17, 

If  ye  know  my  commandments,  happy  are  ye  if  ye  do  them. — Jesus. 

Wherewithal  shall  I  come  before  Jehovah,  and  bow  myself  before  the 
High  God?  ...  He  hath  showed  thee.  Oh  man,  what  is  good;  and  what 
doth  Jehovah  require  of  thee  but  to  do  justly,  and  to  love  kindness,  and  to 
walk  humbly  with  thy  God?— Mzca/i  6:  6,  8. 

Most  rehgions  are  meant  to  be  straight  lines  connecting  two  points — 
God  and  man.  But  Christianity  has  three  points — God,  man,  and  his 
brother — with  two  lines  to  make  a  right  angle. — Maltbie  D.  Babcock. 

So  many  prayers,  so  many  creeds. 
So  many  paths  that  wind  and  wind, 
When  just  the  art  of  being  kind 
Is  all  the  sad  world  needs. 

— Ella  Wheeler  Wilcox. 

I. 

The  History  of  the  Prophetic  Decalogue. 
The  decalogues  of  Exodus  20-23  clearly  represent  the  earliest 
canon  of  the  Old  Testament.  These  are  intended  to  de- 
fine clearly  the  obligations  of  the  nation  to  Jehovah,  and  to 
place  these  obligations  before  the  people  so  definitely  that 
they  would  be  understood  and  met.  As  the  term  "decalogue," 
that  is  'Hen  words,"  indicates,  the  Biblical  decalogue  originally 
contained  ten  brief  sententious  commands,  easily  memorized 
even  by  children.  Each  of  the  decalogues  is  divided  into  two 
groups  of  five  laws  or  pentads.  This  division  of  five  and  ten  was 
without  reasonable  doubt  intended  to  aid  the  memory  by  asso- 
ciating each  law  with  a  finger  or  thumb  of  the  two  hands.     Ex- 


The  Foundations  of  Good  Citizenship  71 

odus  20-23  and  its  parallels  in  Deuteronomy  contain  ten  deca- 
logues, that  is  a  decalogue  of  decalogues,  suggesting  that 
originally  a  decalogue  was  associated  with  each  of  the  fingers  and 
thumbs  of  the  two  hands  even  as  were  the  individual  words  or 
commands.  This  system  of  mnemonics  was  useful  in  teaching  a 
child  nation.  It  is  still  useful  to-day.  It  is  important  to  im- 
press upon  the  child  in  this  concrete  way  certain  of  the  funda- 
mental obligations  to  God  and  man.  The  form  of  the  ten  com- 
mandments in  part  explains  the  commanding  place  which  they 
still  hold  in  religious  education  throughout  Christendom. 

The  Bibhcal  accounts  of  the  two  decalogues  in  Exodus 
20  and  34  vary  in  details.  The  early  Judean  prophetic  narrative 
in  Exodus  34  states  that  these  commands  were  inscribed  by 
Moses  himself  on  two  stone  tablets.  In  the  later  versions  of 
the  story  Jehovah  inscribes  them  with  his  own  fingers  on  the  two 
tablets  which  he  gave  to  Moses.  That  the  older  decalogue  was 
written  on  two  tablets  and  set  up  in  the  temple  of  Solomon  is 
exceedingly  probable,  for  by  the  days  of  the  United  Kingdom  the 
Hebrews  were  begimiing  to  become  acquainted  with  the  art 
of  writing  and  therefore  could  read  the  laws  in  written  form. 
The  recently  discovered  code  of  Hammurabi,  which  comes  from 
the  twentieth  century  B.C.,  was  inscribed  in  parallel  columns  on 
a  stone  monument.  In  the  epilogue  to  this  wonderful  code  the 
king  states:  ''By  the  order  of  Shamash,  the  judge  supreme  of 
heaven  and  earth,  that  judgment  may  shine  in  the  land,  I  set 
up  a  bas-rehef  to  preserve  my  likeness  in  the  great  temple  that 
I  love,  to  commemorate  my  name  forever  in  gratitude.  The 
oppressed  who  has  a  suit  to  prosecute  may  come  before  my  image, 
that  of  a  righteous  king,  and  read  my  inscription  and  under- 
stand my  precious  words  and  let  my  stele  elucidate  his  case. 
Let  him  see  the  law  he  seeks,  and  may  he  draw  in  his  breath  and 
say:  'This  Hammurabi  was  to  his  people  like  the  father  that 
begot  them!'  "  Thus  this  devout  king  of  ancient  Babylonia 
graphically  defines  the  motive  which,  at  a  later  period,  led 
Israel's  spiritual  leaders  to  set  before  the  people  those  prin- 
ciples which  made  for  the  welfare  both  of  the  nation  and  of 
the  individual.  Each  was  keenly  conscious  that  the  laws 
which  brought  social  and  spiritual  health  to  mankind  emanated 
from  the  divine  power  that  was  guiding  the  destinies  of  men. 

Hebrew  tradition  has  described  in  a  great  variety  of  narra- 
tives the  way  in  which  God  made  kno^vn  his  will  to  the  people. 
The  scene  in  each  case  was  Mount  Sinai,  which  the  ancient 


72  The  Making  of  a  Nation 

Hebrews  as  well  as  the  Kenites  regarded  as  Jehovah's  abode. 
In  the  early  Judean  version,  as  some  writers  classify  the  accounts, 
Moses  alone  ascends  the  mountain,  while  the  people  are  for- 
bidden to  approach.  In  the  Northern  Israelite  version  the  peo- 
ple approach,  but  being  terrified  by  the  thunder  and  lightnings 
they  request  Moses  to  receive  for  them  the  divine  message.  This 
later  version  implies  that  a  raging  thunder  storm  shrouded  the 
sacred  mountain,  while  the  early  Judean  and  late  priestly  narra- 
tives apparently  suggest  an  active  volcano. 

The  element  common  to  all  these  accounts  is  that  under  the 
direction  of  their  prophetic  leader,  Moses,  a  solemn  covenant 
was  estabhshed  between  the  nation  and  Jehovah,  and  that  the 
obHgations  of  the  people  were  defined  in  the  decalogue  with  its 
ten  short  commands.  The  problem  is,  however,  complicated 
by  the  presence  of  two  decalogues,  one  now  preserved  in  Exodus 
34  and  the  other,  the  familiar  ten  commandments  of  Exodus  20. 
Both  agree  in  emphasizing  as  primary  the  nation's  obligation 
to  be  loyal  to  Jehovah.  The  decalogue  in  Exodus  34,  however, 
goes  on  to  describe  in  succeeding  laws  the  ways  in  which  the 
nation  may  show  its  loyalty.  This  was  through  the  observa- 
tion of  certain  ceremonial  customs  and  especially  the  great 
annual  feasts.  Did  most  ancient  peoples  show  their  loyalty 
to  the  gods  by  their  lives  and  deeds  or  by  the  ceremonies  of  the 
ritual  and  the  offerings  which  they  brought  to  the  altars? 
The  first  great  prophet  Amos  declared  that  Jehovah  hated  and 
despised  feasts  and  ceremonies  unless  accompanied  by  deeds  of 
justice  and  mercy. 

The  decalogue  in  Exodus  34  may  well  represent  the  original 
commands  which  Moses  laid  upon  the  nation,  but  the  higher 
moral  sense  of  later  editors  has  truly  recognized  the  superiority 
of  the  ethical  commands  of  the  familiar  decalogue  in  Exodus  20 
and  given  it  the  commanding  place  which  it  richly  deserves. 
(For  a  probable  literary  history  of  this  decalogue  see  Hist. 
Bible  I,  194-5.)  The  two  decalogues  of  Exodus  20  and  34  are 
not  duplicates  the  one  of  the  other,  but  rather  supplement  each 
other.  ^  The  one  defines  the  obligation  of  the  nation,  the  other 
of  the  individual.  The  Hebrews  long  continued  to  retain  in 
their  homes  the  family  images  inherited  from  their  Semitic 
ancestors.  Not  until  the  days  of  Amos  and  Isaiah  did  the 
prophets  begin  to  protest  against  the  calves  or  bulls  and  the  cheru- 
bim in  the  sanctuaries  of  Northern  Israel,  and  even  in  the 
temple  at  Jerusalem.     Hence  the  second  command,   *'Thou 


The  Foundations  of  Good  Citizenship  73 

shalt  not  make  for  thyself  any  graven  image,"  some  believe 
comes  from  a  period  centuries  later  than  Moses.  Possibly,  as 
in  Exodus  34:17,  it  originally  read  ''molten  image"  and  re- 
ferred to  foreign  idols.  If  so,  it  may  come  in  this  older  form 
from  Moses.  The  tenth  command  which  places  the  emphasis 
on  the  motive  rather  than  the  act  also  suggests  a  maturer  age; 
but  with  these  possible  exceptions  there  is  good  reason  for 
believing  that  the  spirit  and  teaching  of  Moses  are  embodied 
in  this  noble  decalogue. 

In  what  respects  does  the  version  in  Deuteronomy  5  differ 
from  that  in  Exodus  20?  (Hist.  Bible  I,  195.)  Which  is  prob- 
ably the  older  version?  What  later  explanations  and  exhorta- 
tions have  been  added  to  the  original  ten  words  in  Exodus  20? 
In  Deuteronomy  5?  What  was  the  object  of  these  additions? 
Are  they  of  real  value?  Is  it  prolStable  to  teach  them  to  chil- 
dren to-day? 

II. 

Obligations  of  the  Individual  to  God. 
Into  what  two  groups  do  the  ten  words  in  Exodus  20  fall? 
And  what  is  the  theme  of  each?  Is  there  a  real  difference  be- 
tween the  command  of  Exodus  34,  ''Thou  shalt  worship  no 
other  gods'^  and  that  of  Exodus  20,  "Thou  shalt  have  no  other 
gods  before  me"?  Did  the  Hebrews  as  a  matter  of  fact  tolerate 
the  worship  of  other  gods  in  their  midst  centuries  after  the  days 
of  Moses?  May  the  Hebrews  have  originally  interpreted  the 
command  of  Exodus  20  as  a  demand  that  Jehovah  be  given  the 
first  place  in  the  worship  and  faith  of  Israel?  How  did  later 
prophets  like  Elijah  and  Isaiah  interpret  it?  (See  I  Kings 
18:21  and  Is.  6: 1-8;  8: 13.)  The  older  command  in  Exodus 
34,  "Thou  shalt  make  thee  no  molten  gods,"  was  probably 
intended  to  guard  the  Israelites  from  imitating  the  religious 
customs  of  their  heathen  neighbors,  such  as  the  Egyptians  and 
the  Moabites.  The  command  to  make  no  graven  image  was, 
it  seems,  directed  not  against  the  public  idols  but  against  the 
private  images.  These  were  usually  made  of  wood  and  were 
cherished  in  many  a  Hebrew  family,  as  for  example,  that  of  Jacob 
(cf.  the  story  of  his  flight  from  Laban,  Gen.  31)  or  of  David  (I 
Sam.  19).  The  spirit  of  the  law  is  truly  interpreted  by  the  later 
priestly  commentator  who  places  completely  under  the  ban  all 
attempts  visibly  to  represent  the  Deity.  Is  the  spirit  Of  this 
command  disregarded  by  the  modern  Greek  church?     In  certain 


74  The  Making  of  a  Nation 

parts  of  the  Roman  Catholic  world?  In  any  phases  of  Prot- 
estant worship? 

How  is  the  third  command  interpreted  to-day?  The  exact 
meaning  of  the  original  Hebrew  is  not  entirely  clear.  It  may  be 
interpreted  Hterally:  *'Thou  shalt  not  invoke  the  name  of 
Jehovah,  thy  God,  in  vain."  The  interpretation  turns  on  the 
meaning  of  the  phrase,  in  vain.  This  admits  of  four  different 
translations:  (1)  Purposelessly,  and  therefore  needlessly  or 
irreverently;  (2)  for  destruction,  as  when  a  man  calls  down  a 
curse  upon  another;  (3)  for  nothing,  that  is  in  swearing  to  what 
is  not  true;  and  (4)  in  the  practice  of  sorcery  or  witchcraft,  for 
this  word  was  frequently  used  by  the  Hebrews  as  a  scornful 
designation  of  heathen  abominations.  Is  it  possible  that  the 
original  command  was  intended  to  guard  against  each  of  these 
evils?  If  so,  it  broadens  and  deepens  its  modern  apphcation. 
Its  fundamental  idea  is  evidently  reverence  and  sincerity. 

Why  did  the  Hebrew  law-givers  place  these  three  laws,  which 
emphasize  absolute  loyalty  to  Jehovah,  at  the  beginning  of  the 
decalogue?  What  do  we  mean  to-day  by  loyalty  to  God?  Loy- 
alty to  Jehovah  was  not  only  the  corner  stone  of  Israel's  religion 
but  also  of  the  Hebrew  state.  During  the  wilderness  period  and 
far  down  into  later  periods  it  was  the  chief  and  at  tim^r>  prac- 
tically the  only  bond  that  bound  together  the  individual  mem- 
bers of  the  tribe  and  nation.  Disloyalty  to  Jehovah  was  trea- 
son, and  even  the  mild  code  found  in  the  book  of  Deuteronomy 
directs  that  apostasy  be  punished  by  public  stoning.  Loyalty 
to  God  or  at  least  to  the  individual  sense  of  right  to-day  as  in 
the  past  is  the  first  essential  of  effective  citizenship.  Which 
is  the  more  essential  for  the  welfare  of  the  state,  the  manual,  the 
mental  or  the  religious  training  of  its  citizens?  Where  is  the 
chief  emphasis  placed  to-day?    Is  this  right? 

III. 

The  Social  and  Ethical  Basis  of  the  Sabbath  Law. 

The  institution  of  the  Sabbath  in  different  countries  appar- 
ently has  a  long  and  complex  history.  Many  explanations  have 
been  given  of  its  origin,  aside  from  the  direct  divine  command. 
The  simplest  and  most  satisfactory  is  probably  that  it  was 
originally  connected  with  the  worship  of  the  moon.  There  are 
many  indications  in  Hebrew  history  that  the  early  ancestors  of 
the  Israelites  were  moon  worshippers.    To-day  as  in  the  distant 


The  Foundations  of  Good  Citizenship  75 

past  the  inhabitants  of  the  deserts  from  whence  came  the  fore- 
fathers of  the  Hebrews  make  their  journeys  mider  the  clear,  cool 
light  of  the  moon,  avoiding  the  hot,  piercing  rays  of  the  mid-day 
sun.  The  moon  with  its  marvelous  transformations  is  un- 
questionably the  most  striking  and  awe-inspiring  object  in  the 
heavens.  It  is  not  strange,  therefore,  that  many  primitive  peo- 
ples and  especially  the  nomadic  desert  dwellers  worshipped  it  as 
the  supreme  embodiment  of  beauty  and  power. 

In  China  feast  days  once  a  month  were  doubtless  connected 
with  the  phases  of  the  moon.  Among  the  American  Indians 
time  was  reckoned  by  numbers  of  moons.  The  custom  of  ob- 
serving as  sacred  the  four  days,  which  marked  the  transition 
from  one  quarter  of  the  moon  to  another,  was  also  widespread. 
In  the  Hebrew  religion  the  feast  of  the  New  Moon  was  closely 
identified  with  that  of  the  Sabbath.  The  Hebrew  month  was 
also  the  lunar  month  of  approximately  twenty-eight  days.  The 
new  moon,  therefore,  marked  the  beginning  of  the  month  and 
each  succeeding  Sabbath  a  new  phase  of  the  moon.  The 
fourth  commandment  seems,  therefore,  like  the  others  to  have 
a  basis  in  nature,  and  also,  as  we  shall  note,  a  social  reason. 
Would  a  commandment  be  truly  divine  if  it  did  not  have  a 
natural  and  reasonable  basis?  By  the  ancients  rest  from 
labor  was  regarded  as  one  of  the  essential  elements  in  the 
sacred  day.  The  prophet  Amos  denounced  the  merchants 
of  Northern  Israel  because  they  were  constantly  saying, 

When  shall  the  new  moon  pass  that  we  may  sell  grain, 
And  the  Sabbath  that  we  may  open  the  corn? 

In  its  earlier  ceremonial  interpretation,  to  abstain  from  all 
labor  on  the  Sabbath  was  clearly  regarded  as  a  primary  obliga- 
tion. Like  fasting,  it  is  probably  regarded  as  an  offering  due 
to  Jehovah.  The  word  ''  holy  "  in  the  Hebrew  means  set  apart, 
distinct.  The  Sabbath,  therefore,  was  to  differ  from  the  other 
days  of  the  week.  The  great  ethical  prophets  of  the  Assyrian 
period  were  the  first  completely  to  divest  this  ancient  institu- 
tion of  its  heathen  significance  and  give  it  a  deeper  religious, 
and  therefore  social  and  humanitarian  interpretation.  They 
gave  it  its  true  and  eternal  content,  declaring  that  God  decreed 
that  all  who  labor  should  have  their  needed  rest.  The  prophet 
who  added  the  noble  interpretation  in  Deuteronomy  5:  14,  15, 
declares  that  it  was  not  only  that  old  and  young,  master  and 
slave,  might  rest,  but  also  that  even  the  toiling  ox  and  ass  and 


76  The  Making  of  a  Nation 

the  resident  alien  might  have  the  relaxation  which  their  tired 
bodies  required.  Thus  these  inspired  prophets  traced  the 
ultimate  basis  of  the  institution  of  the  Sabbath  to  God's  provi- 
dence for  the  innate  needs  of  man.  They  recognized  that  it  was 
essential  for  the  physical,  mental  and  spiritual  well-being  of  the 
individual  and,  therefore,  for  the  welfare  of  the  State.  That  the 
Hebrews  might  not  forget  this  obligation,  the  prophets  appealed 
to  the  memory  of  the  days  when  the  Israelites  themselves  were 
slaves  in  the  land  of  Egypt  and  the  thought  of  how  Jehovah 
delivered  them  from  their  slavery. 

Tuan  Fang,  the  great  Manchu  viceroy  who  only  recently  met 
martyrdom  at  the  hands  of  his  warring  countrymen,  said  when 
visiting  America  a  few  years  ago,  '^  I  think  that  when  I  return  to 
China  I  will  introduce  Sunday  in  my  province."  When  asked 
whether  he  would  make  it  the  seventh  day,  he  replied,  ''Yes, 
for  I  think  that  the  seventh  day  is  far  better  than  the  tenth. 
Furthermore,  for  the  convenience  and  economy  of  all,  I  will 
make  it  correspond  to  the  Christian  Sunday.  From  my  study 
of  the  conditions  in  America  and  of  the  needs  in  China  I  am  con- 
vinced that  the  Sabbath  is  a  most  valuable  and  essential 
institution." 

Later  Judaism  revived  the  earlier  heathen  content  of  the  Sab- 
bath, and  lost  sight  of  its  deeper  political,  social  and  humani- 
tarian significance.  Unfortunately  the  Christian  church  and 
above  all  our  Puritan  fathers  followed  the  guidance  of  the  later 
priests  rather  than  of  the  early  prophets.  Jesus  with  his  clear 
insight  into  human  hearts  and  needs,  and  with  his  glowing  love 
for  men,  repudiated  the  harsh,  mechanical  interpretation  of 
the  Sabbath  current  in  his  day  and  reasserted  the  teachings  of 
the  great  prophets  that  preceded  him:  "The  Sabbath  was  made 
for  man,  not  man  for  the  Sabbath." 

Does  the  social  and  humanitarian  interpretation  of  the  Sab- 
bath obscure  or  deepen  its  religious  significance?  Does  the 
great  body  of  the  Christian  church  to-day  accept  the  inter- 
pretation of  the  prophets  and  of  Jesus,  or  that  of  early  heath- 
enism and  later  Judaism?  Does  the  interpretation  of  the 
prophets  and  of  Jesus  furnish  a  basis  on  which  all  classes  in  the 
state  can  unite  in  appreciating  and  in  jealously  guarding  the 
Sabbath?  Does  the  acceptance  of  one  or  the  other  of  these 
interpretations  fundamentally  affect  our  actual  observance 
of  the  Sabbath?  Our  motives  and  our  spirit?  Our  attitude 
toward  our  fellow  men? 


The  Foundations  of  Good  Citizenship  77 

IV. 

The  Importance  of  Children's  Loyalty  to  Parents 
It  is  generally  recognized  by  scientists  that  the  place  of  ani- 
mals in  the  scale  of  being  is  dependent  upon  the  length  of  their 
period  of  infancy.  The  lower  forms  of  animal  life  are  mature 
almost  as  soon  as  they  are  born.  Minnows  never  come  under 
the  care  of  their  genitors,  but  are  independent  as  soon  as  they 
are  hatched.  The  young  of  the  less  developed  quadrupeds 
are  soon  weaned  and  forgotten  by  their  parents.  The  longer 
the  young  remain  in  the  care  of  their  parents  the  higher  the 
form  of  the  animal.  The  great  difference  between  men  and  most 
of  the  higher  animals  is  thought  by  many  to  be  dependent  upon 
the  length  of  childhood,  and  the  consequent  care  and  attention 
given  by  the  parents.  Even  among  human  beings  it  is  scarcely 
too  much  to  say  that  the  longer  the  time  of  education  and  train- 
ing under  proper  supervision  lasts,  the  more  successful  finally 
at  the  end  of  life  the  man  will  be.  When  one  considers  that 
Aristotle,  who  is  perhaps  generally  accepted  as  the  world's 
greatest  thinker,  associated  with  his  great  teacher,  Plato, 
twenty  years,  until  he  was  thirty-eight  years  of  age  and  pro- 
duced nearly  all  his  important  works  only  after  that  time,  we 
may  see  one  example  of  the  profoimd  importance  of  training. 
The  care  of  parents  for  their  children  throughout  all  of  their 
early  years  would  naturally  imply  loyalty  of  children  to  the 
parents  as  a  mark  of  gratitude  for  the  time  and  affection 
expended  upon  them. 

In  one  of  his  characteristic  poems,  filled  with  wise  suggestion, 
Lowell  speaks  of  obedience  as  that  *' great  tap  root"  of  the 
state  and  j  civilization.  The  habit  of  obedience  is  one  of  the 
finest  characteristics  in  family  life,  and  obedience  to  parents 
normally  becomes  obedience  to  law  in  the  citizen,  one  of  the 
surest  bonds  of  society  and  one  of  the  most  necessary  conditions 
of  social  progress. 

This  fact  was  so  fully  recognized  in  the  patriarchal  stage  of 
society  that  the  head  of  the  family  within  the  tribe  had  the 
power  even  of  fife  and  death  over  the  members  of  his  household. 
In  practically  all  early  societies  we  find  this  authority  of  the 
parent  and  the  obedience  of  the  child  insisted  upon  as  funda- 
mental. In  the  Orient,  even  to  the  present  day,  this  respect  of 
children  for  their  parents  is  closely  bound  up  with  their  religion 
and  their  civilization.    The  first  wish  of  every  man  is  that  he 


78  The  Making  of  a  Nation 

may  have  a  son  to  sacrifice  to  his  memory  after  he  has  gone,  and 
not  only  in  China,  but  in  many  other  states  we  find  ancestral 
worship  springing  from  this  relation  of  father  and  son. 

The  primitive  Hebrew  laws  (Ex.  21: 15,  17)  made  death  the 
penalty  for  a  child  who  struck  or  cursed  his  parents.  In  many 
countries  parricide  is  considered  the  worse  tj^pe  of  murder.  The 
very  old  Sumerian  law  of  ancient  Babylon  punished  with  slav- 
ery the  son  who  repudiated  his  father.  In  the  fifth  command- 
ment no  penalty  is  named  for  disrespect  toward  one's  parents. 
The  religious  sanction  only  is  implied,  though  the  penalty  of 
death  was  inflicted  by  the  law  of  the  tribe. 

In  society  to-day  our  aim  in  education  is  to  develop  indi- 
viduality and  for  a  country  with  a  democratic  form  of  govern- 
ment this  type  of  education  should  be  encouraged.  Disobe- 
dience or  disrespect  to  parents  has  no  longer  a  legal  penalty,  al- 
though the  children  may  be  compelled  by  law  to  support  their 
parents.  But  gratitude  toward  parents  and  a  normal  affec- 
tionate family  life  are  practically  essential  to  social  welfare. 
Aside  from  its  civic  aspect,  there  is  nothing  in  society  more 
beautiful  than  the  right  relationship  between  parents  and  chil- 
dren. Jesus,  who  represented  the  kingdom  of  God  as  a  house- 
hold, found  that  the  best  analogy  for  the  relationship  of  men  to 
God  and  the  best  descriptions  of  the  divine  nature  are  based 
upon  this  relationship. 

V. 
Primary  Obligations  of  Man  to  Man. 

The  second  five  commandments  of  the  decalogue  deal  with 
the  obligations  of  man  to  man.  These  commands  still  find  a 
central  place  in  modern  society  as  the  best  guarantees  of  social 
stabiHty,  security  and  peace.  All  of  the  crimes  with  which  they 
deal,  except  that  of  covetousness,  were  punished,  in  Hebrew 
custom  and  law,  by  definite  penalties.  In  many  instances  these 
penalties  were  still  more  severe  among  other  early  peoples. 

As  soon  as  society  emerges  from  the  savage  state,  the  crime 
of  adultery  is  always  forbidden.  Nothing  else  stirs  the  worst  of 
human  passions  as  does  sexual  jealousy.  Even  to-day  probably 
no  other  cause  is  more  productive  of  murder  and  suicide.  In  early 
societies,  like  that  of  the  Israelites,  to  this  normal  human  feel- 
ing of  personal  wrong  was  added  that  of  the  loss  of  property,  for 
wives  or  concubines  were  considered  as  property.  Hence  the 
penalty  for  adultery  among  the  Hebrews,  as  with  many  ancient 
and  many  modern  peoples,  was  death. 


The  Foundations  of  Good  Citizenship  79 

As  soon  as  society  develops  from  the  savage  into  the  pastoral 
stage,  private  property  is  recognized  in  the  flocks  and  herds. 
In  the  development  of  society  additional  types  of  property 
rights  appear  under  various  forms  of  ownership,  until  it  is 
not  too  much  to  say  that  modern  society  is  based  largely 
upon  property  rights.  The  evils  associated  with  property  are 
many,  but  as  yet,  at  any  rate,  the  rights  of  property  are  a  bene- 
fit to  the  state,  provided  those  rights  are  exercised  under  proper 
legal  supervision.  It  should  be  recognized,  however,  that  the 
command,  ''Thou  shalt  not  steal, '^  may  well  have  various 
meanings,  dependent  upon  the  laws  of  property.  Our  law  re- 
stricts the  right  of  legacy,  the  sale  or  even  the  possession  of 
poisons  and  often  of  dangerous  weapons.  Similarly  the  degree 
of  ownership  of  other  goods  is  often  limited. 

The  ninth  command,  not  to  bear  false  witness  against  one^s 
neighbor,  is  often  interpreted  as  simply  a  violation  of  one's 
oath  in  court,  or  when  appended  to  formal  legal  papers.  But  in 
most  modern  countries  the  command  is  also  interpreted  so  as 
to  include  lying.  If  this  crime  is  defined  in  its  broadest  sense, 
as  lack  of  truth  and  trustworthiness,  it  is  in  many  ways  the  great- 
est sin  man  can  commit  against  society.  Practically  all  modern 
economic  and  social  relations  are  based  upon  the  security  of 
contracts  and  upon  the  readiness  of  business  men  and  citizens 
to  keep  their  word.  It  may  be  well  questioned  whether  the 
crime  of  murder  is  as  dangerous  to  society  as  the  habit  of  decep- 
tion, for  the  temptation  of  murder  is  rare  as  compared  with  that 
of  deception;  while  the  evil  is  often  less  far-reaching  in  its  con- 
sequence and  less  despicable. 

In  the  last  command,  that  directed  against  covetousness,  the 
law-giver  goes  beyond  the  external  act  to  the  motive  and  spirit 
in  the  mind  of  the  individual.  If  this  command  is  kept  in  spirit, 
the  others  are  practically  unnecessary.  This  command  is  like 
in  kind  to  that  of  Jesus  in  the  New  Testament,  where  all  the 
commandments  are  summed  up  into  one:  ''Love  one  another." 

VI. 

The  Present-day  Authority  of  the  Ten  Commandments. 

The  various  books  that  make  up  our  Bible  were  each  written 

to  meet  the  needs  of  the  people  of  its  day;  but  inasmuch  as  the 

prophets  and  law-givers  from  the  days  of  Moses  to  those  of 

Jesus  touched  upon  the  most  vital  questions  of  human  life  and 


80  The  Making  of  a  Nation 

society,  these  principles  are  most  of  them  universal  and  appli- 
cable to  all  tribes  and  nations  and  races  and  peoples. 

Necessarily  there  are  many  variations  in  the  specific  methods 
by  which  these  commands  are  to  be  carried  out.  The  honor 
and  reverence  due  everywhere  to  mother  and  father  may  well 
have  different  applications,  depending  upon  the  type  of  civiliza- 
tion, the  customs  of  living  and  the  type  of  home  life  that  exist 
in  the  different  countries.  The  injunction  to  keep  the  Sabbath 
may  well  be  carried  out  with  the  same  spirit  in  various  ways. 
What  constitutes  theft  depends  upon  the  law  of  the  separate 
state  and  upon  the  rights  of  property  granted  by  that  law,  but 
everywhere  the  primary  obligations  of  the  individual  to  God, 
to  society  and  to  his  fellow  men  remain  substantially  the  same. 
As  he  develops  a  more  tender  conscience,  a  more  just  and  kindly 
attitude  toward  his  fellows,  a  greater  reverence  toward  his 
Creator,  the  spirit  with  which  he  keeps  these  commandments 
is  becoming  continually  more  urgent,  whatever  may  be  the  spe- 
cific way  in  which  they  may  be  carried  out  for  the  benefit  of  his 
fellow  men  and  of  society. 

Questions  for  Further  Consideration. 

Does  idol  worship  exist  in  any  part  of  the  civilized  world  to-day?  If  so, 
where  and  in  what  forms? 

Are  those  addicted  to  profanity  necessarily  and  intentionally  irreverent? 
What  is  the  origin  of  this  habit?  How  may  it  be  eradicated?  What  are 
some  of  the  best  methods  by  which  children  may  be  guarded  against  it? 

Do  you  think  it  is  right  for  the  state  to  become  responsible  for  the  re- 
ligious education  of  its  citizens? 

What  is  the  fundamental  difference  between  the  so-called  "Continental 
Sabbath"  and  that  observed  by  Jesus? 

In  what  way  may  Sunday  be  made  a  day  of  greater  profit  and  signifi- 
cance to  the  working  man? 

What  attitude  should  one  take  regarding  so-called  "white"  or  "society 
lies"?    Under  what  circumstances,  if  any,  is  it  right  to  lie? 

Subjects  for  Further  Study. 

(1)  The  Decalogues  in  Exodus  20-23.    Hist.  Bible  II,  209-24. 

(2)  Jesus'  Version  of  the  Ancient  Prophetic  Decalogue.  See  Matt. 
5:17,  18;6:19-21;12:1-12,  31,  32;  15:3-5;  22:36-39. 

(3)  Compare  the  Moral  Ideals  of  the  Decalogue  with  those  of  the  Present- 
Day  Sociahsts.  Cross,  The  Essentials  of  Socialism;  Walling,  Socialism  as 
It  Is;  Sparge,  Elements  of  Socialism. 


The  Early  Training  of  a  Race  81 

STUDY  XI 

THE  EARLY  TRAINING  OF  A  RACE. 
Israel's  Experience  in  the  Wilderness  and  East  of  the 
Jordan.— Num.  11-14;  21:21-31;  32:39-42. 

Parallel  Readings. 
Hist.  Bible  I,  204-29. 
Edwaxd  Jenks,  Hist,  of  Politics,  Chap.  III. 

Then  as  they  journeyed  from  the  mountain  of  Jehovah  the  ark  of  Jehovah 
went  before  them,  to  seek  out  a  halting  place  for  them.  And  whenever  the 
ark  started,  Moses  would  say, 

Arise,  O  Jehovah, 

And  let  thine  enemies  be  scattered, 

And  let  those  who  hate  thee  flee  before  thee. 
And  when  it  rested,  he  would  say. 

Return,  O  Jehovah,  to  the  ten  thousand  of  thousands  of  Israel. — Num. 
10:  33,  36,  36. 

As  an  eagle  stirreth  up  her  nest,  hovereth  over  her  young,  taketh  them, 
beareth  them  upon  her  wings,  so  the  Lord  his  God  did  lead  him  and  there 
was  no  strange  God  with  him. — Deut.  32: 11. 

Before  man  made  us  citizens,  great  Nature  made  us  men. — Lowell. 

Oh,  East  is  East,  and  West  is  West,  and  never  the  twain  shall  meet 
Till  earth  and  sky  stand  presently  at  God's  great  judgment  seat; 
But  there  is  neither  East  nor  West,  border  nor  breed  nor  birth 
When  two  strong  men  stand  face  to  face,  tho'  they  come  from  the  ends  of 
the  earth.  — Rudyard  Kipling. 

The  measure  of  the  success  of  our  lives  can  only  lie  in  the  stature  of  our 
manhood,  in  the  growth  in  unworldliness  and  in  the  moral  elevation  of  our 
inner  self. — Henry  Drummond. 

The  Wilderness  Environment. 
The  accounts  regarding  the  experiences  of  the  Israelites  in 
the  wilderness  lack  the  unity  which  characterizes  the  records 
of  the  earher  and  later  periods.  They  simply  give  occasional 
pictures  of  the  Hfe  of  the  Hebrew  fugitives.  They  must  be  in- 
terpreted in  the  light  of  the  peculiar  background  of  the  wilder- 
ness and  of  the  nomadic  life  which  flourishes  there  to-day  as  it 
did  in  the  past.  The  Hebrews  on  escaping  from  Egypt  entered 
the  South  Country,  which  extends  seventy  miles  from  the  rocky 
hills  of  Judah  southward  until  it  merges  into  the  barren  desert. 
During  the  later  Roman  period  the  northern  and  northwestern 
portions  of  this  territory  were  partially  reclaimed  by  agricul- 
turalists; but  in  early  periods,  as  to-day,  it  was  pre-eminently  the 
home  of  wandering,  nomadic  tribes.    This  wild,  treeless  region 


82  The  Making  of  a  Nation 

is  divided  by  rocky  ranges  running  from  east  to  west.  Parallel 
to  these  are  deep,  hot  and  for  the  most  part  waterless  valleys. 
In  the  springtime  these  valleys  are  covered  by  a  sparse  vegeta- 
tion; from  a  few  perennial  springs  flow  waters  that  irrigate  the 
immediately  surrounding  land;  but  they  soon  lose  themselves 
in  the  thirsty  desert.  During  the  summer  the  vegetation  dis- 
appears almost  entirely,  and  the  struggle  for  subsistence  be- 
comes intense.  The  nature  of  the  country  makes  it  necessary 
for  its  inhabitants  constantly  to  journey  from  one  pasture  land 
and  spring  to  another. 

The  home  of  the  Hebrews  at  this  time,  like  that  of  the  modern 
Arabs,  was  the  tent.  The  stories  that  have  come  down  from  this 
period  suggest  the  experiences  through  which  they  passed.  The 
constant  insistent  problem  in  this  region  was  and  is  how  to 
secure  adequate  supplies  of  food  and  water.  During  the  greater 
part  of  the  year  the  chief  food  of  the  people  is  the  milk  and  curds 
supplied  by  their  herds.  At  times,  however,  these  fail  to  meet 
the  needs  even  of  the  modern  Bedouin  inhabitants  of  this  South 
Country.  They  then  gather  the  gum  that  exudes  from  the 
tamarisk  tree  or  the  lichens  from  the  rocks.  From  these  they 
make  a  coarse  flour  and  bread  which  keeps  them  alive  until  the 
winter  rains  again  bring  their  supply  of  water  and  pasturage. 
Some  scholars  hold  that  this  coarse  food  was  the  manna  of  the 
Biblical  accounts.  They  argue  that  later  generations,  familiar 
with  the  barrenness  of  the  wilderness  and  believing  that  the 
Hebrews  at  this  time  numbered  many  thousands,  naturally 
concluded  and  reported  that  their  ancestors  were  miraculously 
fed.  At  certain  periods,  also,  the  meagre  fare  of  the  desert 
dweller  is  supplemented  by  the  quails  which  he  is  able  to  capture 
and  these  are  a  welcome  relief  to  his  monotonous  diet.  About 
the  perennial  springs,  which  gush  forth  from  the  barren  rock, 
there  also  grew  up  stories  of  a  miraculous  provision  for  the 
needs  of  Jehovah's  people;  for  all  springs  and  especially  those 
in  the  desert  were  regarded  by  the  ancients  as  miracles.  Even 
in  more  fertile  lands  the  Greeks  reared  beside  such  springs 
temples  to  the  god,  whom  they  thought  of  as  thus  signally 
revealing  himself.  In  the  deeper  sense  each  of  these  early 
Hebrew  stories  is  historical,  for  they  all  record  the  fundamental 
thought  and  belief  that  through  this  strenuous,  painful  period, 
even  as  in  later  crises  in  their  history,  Jehovah  was  guiding 
his  people  and  giving  them  not  only  food  and  water,  but 


The  Early  Training  of  a  Race  83 

also  that  training  in  the  school  of  danger  and  privation  which 
was  essential  for  their  highest  development. 

Even  more  insistent  than  the  constant  struggle  for  food  and 
water  were  the  dangers  that  came  from  the  hostile  tribes  which 
already  occupied  this  much-contested  territory.  For  the  pos- 
session of  the  springs  and  pasture  lands  they  fought  with  the 
energy  and  craft  that  characterize  the  Bedouin  tribes  to-day. 
Hence,  to  the  Hebrews,  fresh  from  the  fertile  fields  of  Egypt, 
their  life  in  the  wilderness  represented  constant  hardship, 
privation,  suffering  and  danger. 

II. 

Influence  of  the  Nomadic  Life  upon  Israel's  Character 

AND  Ideals. 

The  wilderness  left  a  stamp  upon  Hebrew  character  and  life 
that  may  be  traced  even  to-day  in  the  later  descendants  of  that 
race.  It  tightened  their  muscles  and  gave  them  that  physical 
virility  which  has  enabled  them  to  survive  even  amidst  the  most 
unfavorable  conditions.  It  taught  them  how  to  subsist  on  the 
most  meagre  food  supply  and  to  thrive  where  the  citizen  of  a 
more  prosperous  land  would  inevitably  starve. 

It  is  probable  that  in  their  early  nomadic  experiences  the 
Hebrews  acquired  those  migratory  habits  which,  intensified 
by  unwonted  vicissitudes,  have  carried  them  to  almost  every 
civilized  land.  In  the  wilderness  they  also  learned  the  art  of 
nomadic  warfare  which,  to  win  victories,  depended  not  so  much 
upon  open  attack  as  upon  strategy.  The  common  dangers 
of  the  wilderness  life  tightened  the  racial  and  religious  bonds 
that  held  them  together.  Only  by  the  closest  union  could 
they  resist  the  perils  that  beset  them.  Upon  the  complete  de- 
votion of  each  man  to  the  interest  of  the  tribe  hung  his  fate,  as 
well  as  that  of  the  community  as  a  whole.  Hence  arose  that 
devotion  to  race,  that  readiness  to  avenge  every  wrong  and  to 
protect  each  individual,  even  if  it  cost  the  life-blood  of  the  tribe, 
which  is  illustrated  in  many  of  the  stories  that  come  from  this 
early  period.     How  far  has  this  racial  characteristic  survived? 

In  a  community  thus  closely  bound  together  the  morality 
of  each  individual  was  guarded  with  a  jealousy  unknown  in 
more  settled  prosperous  communities.  Thus,  for  example, 
adultery  from  the  first  appears  to  have  been  punished  by  public 
stoning.  How  far  has  this  characteristic  survived  to  the  glory 
of  the  Jewish  race? 


84  The  Making  of  a  Nation 

The  tribal  organization  also  cherished  the  freedom  of  each 
individual.  His  voice  was  heard  in  its  council  and  his  rights 
were  carefully  protected.  The  free  atmosphere  of  the  desert 
tolerated  no  despotism,  and  the  sheik  was  the  servant  of  all. 
These  fundamental  conceptions  of  government  persisted  even 
when,  under  the  influence  of  a  new  agricultural  environment,  the 
Hebrews  estabhshed  the  kingship  and  monarchy.  It  was  the 
struggle  between  these  inherited  democratic  ideals  and  those  of 
the  neighbors  who  were  ruled  by  despots,  that  ultimately  dis- 
rupted the  Hebrew  kingdom  and  called  forth  those  great  cham- 
pions of  liberty  and  social  justice,  the  prophets  of  the  Assyrian 
period.  It  was  this  same  democratic  atmosphere  that  made 
possible  the  work  of  those  prophets,  who  openly  denounced  the 
crimes  of  king  and  people.  How  far  have  the  Jews  throughout 
all  their  history  allied  themselves  with  democratic  movements? 

III. 

The  Influence  op  the  Wilderness  Life  upon 

Israel's  Faith. 

The  pressure  of  constant  danger  intensified  the  sense  of  de- 
pendence upon  a  power  outside  and  above  themselves.  It  led 
them  to  look  constantly  to  Jehovah  as  their  sole  guide  and  de- 
liverer. A  continued  attitude  crystallized  into  a  habit.  Hence, 
throughout  their  troubled  career  the  Hebrews  have  been  con- 
scious of  the  presence  of  God  and  have  found  in  him  their  de- 
fender and  personal  friend  as  has  no  other  people  in  human 
history. 

As  later  generations  meditated  on  the  perils  of  the  wilderness 
through  which  their  ancestors  passed,  they  naturally  felt  that 
only  under  the  immediate  guidance  of  a  divine  power  could  they 
have  escaped.  They  were  familiar  with  the  way  in  which  the 
caravans  travel  through  the  desert :  in  front  of  the  leader  is  borne 
aloft  a  brazier  filled  with  coals.  From  this  smouldering  fire  there 
arises  by  day  a  column  of  smoke  that,  in  the  clear  air  of  the  des- 
ert, can  be  easily  seen  afar  by  any  who  may  straggle  behind. 
At  night  these  glowing  coals  seem  like  a  pillar  of  fire,  telling  of 
the  presence  of  their  leader  and  protector.  With  the  same 
vivid  imagery,  according  to  some  interpreters,  the  later  Hebrews 
pictured  the  march  of  their  ancestors  through  the  wilderness, 
and  thereby  symbolized  the  belief  that  Jehovah  was  then  present 
and  that  through  his  prophet  Moses  he  was  personally  guiding 
his  people.    How  far  have  these  Old  Testament  narratives 


The  Early  Training  of  a  Race  85 

been  thus  interpreted  by  modem  western  readers?  Does  it 
change  their  spiritual  significance  to  seek  to  learn  their  origin 
and  real  literary  character?  Are  there  still  to  be  found,  often 
in  humble  walks  of  life,  earnest  Christians  who  have  similar 
deep  spiritual  experiences  and  describe  them  with  the  same 
vivid  imagery  and  concreteness?  Is  the  value  of  our  concep- 
tion of  God's  presence  and  activity  in  human  history  deepened 
and  strengthened  or  lessened  by  the  thought  that  in  the  past, 
even  as  to-day,  he  accomplished  his  ends  by  natural  rather  than 
contra-natural  methods?  Are  the  faith  and  institutions  of 
nations  and  individuals  developed  most  through  special  revela- 
tions or  through  ordinary,  constant,  daily  training  and  experi- 
ence? Is  it  not  true  that  to  us  all  there  come  at  times  experi- 
ences akin  to  those  that  underhe  these  wonderful  narratives? 

IV. 

The  Significance  of  the  East-Jordan  Conquests. 

Desert  dwellers  take  little  account  of  the  lapse  of  time.  It  is 
not  strange  that  the  data  regarding  the  duration  of  the  sojourn 
in  the  wilderness  are  late  and  exceedingly  vague.  The  number 
forty  in  the  Bible  is  the  concrete  Hebrew  equivalent  of  many. 
Ordinarily  the  forty  years  represent  a  generation.  A  period 
of  about  forty  years  accords  well  with  the  facts  of  contemporary 
Egyptian  chronology.  If  the  Hebrews  fled  from  Egypt  about 
1200,  during  the  period  of  anarchy  following  the  breakdown  of 
the  nineteenth  Egyptian  dynasty,  they  could  not  have  entered 
Palestine  much  before  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century,  for 
Ramses  III  of  the  Twentieth  Dynasty  succeeded  in  re-estabhsh- 
ing  and  maintaining  his  authority  in  Southern  Palestine  until 
his  death  about  1167  B.C. 

The  account  of  the  spies,  preserved  according  to  some 
writers  in  variant  versions  by  each  of  the  great  groups  of 
Hebrew  narratives,  indicates  that  the  Hebrews  attempted 
but  failed  to  enter  Canaan  from  the  south.  For  tribesmen  hke 
the  Israelites,  chafing  imder  their  harsh  environment  and 
recalling  the  prosperity  of  the  land  of  Egypt,  Palestine  with 
its  green  hills  and  fertile  fields  was  an  irresistible  lodestone 
luring  them  on  to  the  conquest.  The  reasons  why  they  failed 
to  enter  Canaan  from  the  south  are  suggested  in  the  nar- 
rative of  the  spies  and  confirmed  by  a  study  of  the  histoncal 
geographical  situation.  The  Canaanite  cities  of  Southern 
Palestme  were  built  largely  with  the  view  to  protecting  their 


86  The  Making  of  a  Nation 

inhabitants  from  the  ever-lurking  nomad  invaders.  On 
the  other  hand  the  Hebrews  had  none  of  the  equipment  needed 
to  conquer  walled  cities.  More  than  that  the  barren  hills 
of  the  South  Country  did  not  furnish  the  base  of  supplies 
necessary  to  maintain  a  protracted  siege.  The  early  Hebrew 
narratives  imply  that  certain  nomadic  tribes,  as,  for  example, 
the  Calebites,  the  Kenizzites  and  the  Jerahmeelites,  indepen- 
dently gained  a  foothold  on  the  southern  borders  of  Canaan  and 
ultimately  assimilated  with  the  Hebrew  tribe  of  Judah  when  the 
latter  entered  Palestine.  The  earliest  Hebrew  accounts,  how- 
ever, as  well  as  the  logic  of  the  situation  indicate  that  the  great 
body  of  the  Israehtes,  whose  ancestors  had  been  in  the  land 
of  Egypt,  entered  Palestine  from  the  east.  Throughout  all 
its  history  the  east-Jordan  land  has  witnessed  the  constant 
transition  of  Arab  tribes  from  the  nomadic  life  of  the  desert 
to  the  more  settled  civiHzation  of  agricultural  Palestine.  Here 
on  the  eastern  heights  that  overlook  the  Jordan  valley  and  the 
land  of  Canaan  the  traveller  still  finds  the  Arab  tents  and  flocks 
of  the  nomads  beside  the  plowed  fields  of  the  village-dwellers. 
On  the  rolling  plains  of  northern  Moab  and  southern  Gilead 
there  are  few  commanding  heights  or  natural  fortresses.  The 
important  towns,  like  Dibon  and  Heshbon,  lay  on  slightly  rising 
hills.  The  character  of  the  ruins  to-day  does  not  indicate  that 
they  were  ever  surrounded  by  formidable  walls.  Whether  the 
Hebrews  conquered  them  by  open  attack  or  by  strategy,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  town  of  Ai,  is  not  stated.  It  is  certain,  however, 
that  here  they  first  gained  a  permanent  foothold  in  agricultural 
Palestine.  From  the  conquered  they  here  learned  their  initial 
lessons  in  the  arts  of  agriculture  and  became  acquainted  with 
that  more  advanced  Canaanite  civilization  which  they  later 
absorbed.  Coming  fresh  from  the  desert,  where  only  the  fittest 
survived,  their  numbers  rapidly  increased  in  this  quieter  and 
more  favorable  environment.  Soon  to  the  constant  pressure 
of  the  desert  population  on  the  east  was  added  that  of  over- 
population, so  that  necessity,  as  well  as  ambition,  impelled 
them  to  cross  the  Jordan  to  seek  homes  among  the  hills  to  the 
west. 

V. 
The  Significance  of  Moses'  Work. 
The  study  of  the  beginnings  of  Israel's  history  in  the  light  of 
its  physical,  social  and  economic  environment  reveals  clearly 
the  many  powerful  forces  then  at  work.      At  the  same  time 


The  Early  Training  of  a  Race  87 

these  do  not  alone  explain  Israel's  later  history  and  the  unique- 
ness of  its  character  and  faith.  These  later  facts  plainly  point 
back  to  a  strong,  commanding  personality,  who  shaped  the 
ideals  and  institutions  of  this  early  people  and  left  upon  them  the 
imperishable  imprint  of  his  own  unique  individuality.  Al- 
though the  traditions  regarding  him  have  been  transmitted  for 
centuries  from  mouth  to  mouth,  they  portray  the  character 
and  work  of  Moses  with  remarkable  clarity  and  impressiveness. 
Moses  was  primarily  a  patriot.  He  was  also  a  prophet-states- 
man, able  to  grasp  and  interpret  the  significance  of  the  great 
crises  in  the  life  of  his  people  and  to  suggest  practical  solutions. 
Moreover,  he  was  able  to  inspire  confidence,  and  to  lead  as  well 
as  direct.  In  the  harsh  environment  of  the  wilderness  he  was 
able  to  adjust  himself  to  most  difficult  conditions.  In  leading 
the  Hebrew  serfs  from  the  land  of  Egypt,  he  became  indeed  the 
creator  of  the  future  Hebrew  nation.  In  the  wilderness  he 
trained  that  child  nation.  As  judge  and  counsellor,  he  taught 
concretely  the  broad  principles  which  became  the  foundation 
of  later  Hebrew  law. 

As  guardian  of  the  oracle  and  priest  of  the  desert  sanctuary, 
Moses,  like  the  later  prophet  of  Islam,  but  with  far  greater 
spiritual  power  and  deeper  insight,  taught  his  people  not 
only  the  art  of  worship,  but  certain  of  the  great  essentials  of 
religion.  He  it  was  who  formulated  in  a  positive  faith  the 
wholesome  reaction  which  he  and  his  kinsmen  felt  against  the 
gross  polytheism  of  Egypt.  The  inspiration  of  all  of  Moses' 
work  was  his  own  personal  faith.  The  first  great  vision  of  Je- 
hovah's character  and  purpose  that  he  had  received  in  the  land 
of  Midian  was  doubtless  often  renewed  amidst  the  same  wild, 
impressive  scenes.  The  exact  nature  of  the  deeper,  more  per- 
sonal side  of  his  character  and  faith  must  be  inferred  from  the 
close  analogies  that  may  be  drawn  from  the  memoirs  of  Isaiah 
or  Jeremiah.  At  the  same  time  it  is  a  mistake  to  infer  that 
Moses'  beliefs  were  as  lofty  as  those  of  the  later  prophets  who 
stood  in  the  light  of  a  larger  experience.  On  the  other  hand,  it 
is  not  just  to  disregard  the  fact  that  Moses,  being  a  prophet, 
was  far  in  advance  of  the  primitive  age  in  which  he  lived.  Not 
only  did  Moses  create  the  Hebrew  nation  and  teach  it  its  first 
lessons  in  practical  politics  and  religion,  but  he  it  was  who  first 
instilled  into  his  race  commanding  loyalty  to  the  one  God,  Je- 
hovah, and  taught  that  religion  was  more  than  form:  that  it 
meant  right  thinking  and  doing.     Thus  Moses  was  the  fore- 


88  The  Making  of  a  Nation 

runner  of  Israel's  later  prophets,  who  broke  away  from  the  nar- 
row heathen  interpretation  of  religion  and  defined  it  in  terms 
of  life  and  service. 

VI. 

The  Early  Stages  in  the  Training  of  the  Human  Race. 

It  is  interesting  and  important  to  note  that  Israel's  history  was 
in  most  respects  like  that  of  other  growing  nations.  In  the 
beginning  pastoral  society  and  tribal  government  develop  among 
savages  primarily  through  the  domestication  of  animals.  The 
young  of  the  animals  slain  in  the  hunt  are  kept  first  as  pets: 
then,  when  as  a  result  of  the  thriftless  nature  of  the  savages 
supplies  at  times  become  scarce,  the  pets  are  slain  for  food. 
As  pets  become  more  common  and  population  increases,  the 
advantage  of  breeding  for  use  is  apparent,  and  private  prop- 
erty, in  distinction  from  community  possessions,  appears. 
The  growing  herds  naturally  develop  the  need  of  regular  serv- 
ice. To  meet  this  need  the  institutions  of  permanent  mar- 
riage and  bondage  arise  and  the  wife  or  wives  and  the  slaves 
perform  the  added  work.  With  the  custom  of  fixed  marriage 
and  the  possibility  of  tracing  ancestry  through  the  father, 
comes  in  time  ancestral  government.  The  Hebrews  seem 
to  have  had  this  type  of  government,  even  in  the  days  of 
Abraham;  and  it  lasted  until  the  tribes  broke  up  into  clans  and 
families,  when  they  acquired  permanent  homes  and  became 
agriculturists  in  the  land  of  Canaan. 

Many  of  the  characteristics  of  the  tribe  disappear  almost 
entirely,  as  wandering  nomads  settle  in  a  fixed  abode,  and  the 
patriarchal  rule  changes  to  that  of  a  royal  or  democratic  govern- 
ment. Customs  become  fixed  in  formal  statutes.  Property 
in  land  becomes  more  important  than  that  in  herds.  War 
becomes  the  business  of  a  special  army,  instead  of  the  frequent 
duty  of  all. 

But  in  the  tribe  there  is  little  competition.  All  work  for  the 
community,  or  for  the  family,  rather  than  for  individual  inter- 
ests. Each  man  is  primarily  responsible,  not  to  the  state,  but 
to  the  head  of  his  family  or  clan,  who  in  turn  answers  for  his 
family  to  the  tribal  chief. 

Certain  of  these  tribal  institutions  and  ideals  have  left  their 
indelible  impress  on  modern  society.  The  tribe  was  exclu- 
sive. All  those  not  born  into  the  tribe  had  no  right,  no  welcome 
there,  for  their  coming  would  tend  to  restrict  the  common 


The  Early  Training  of  a  Race  89 

pasturage.  They  would  be  a  burden.  Though  the  tent- 
dweller  might  be  hospitable  to  a  guest,  an  alien  had  no  rights 
except  on  sufferance.  If  he  were  needy  and  were  received,  he 
usually  became  a  serf  or  slave.  And  yet  this  exclusiveness  is 
the  germ  of  our  patriotism,  a  noble  trait  that  may  ultimately, 
but  not  soon,  be  replaced  by  a  cosmopolitan  love  for  humanity. 

Allied  to  this  is  the  personal  bond,  that  obtains  in  the  tribe, 
instead  of  the  territorial  unity  of  the  modern  state.  A  French- 
man is  such  because  he  is  born  in  France;  an  Israelite  is  such 
because  he  is  the  son  of  Abraham  and  knows  his  people  as  his 
blood  kinsmen. 

This  personal  tie  makes  for  peace  and  democracy.  Building 
on  this  Jewish  tribal  trait,  Jesus  calls  all  men  brethren  because 
sons  of  a  common  Father.  His  Kingdom  of  God,  likewise,  is 
not  territorial.  Its  citizens  are  bound  together  by  the  tribal 
bond  of  a  common  brotherhood  and  fatherhood.  Thus  the 
lessons,  so  deeply  impressed  in  the  childhood  of  the  race,  have  a 
large  and  growing  significance  for  the  present  and  future. 

Questions  for  Further  Consideration. 

What  reasons  may  be  given  to  prove  that  love  for  humanity  is  a  virtue 
more  useful  to  modern  civilization  than  patriotism? 

Does  the  movement  for  universal  peace  find  any  encouragement  in  the 
teachings  ascribed  to  Moses? 

On  what  grounds  can  the  conquest  of  Canaan  by  the  Israehtes  be  de- 
fended? How  did  it  differ  from  the  taking  of  Tripoli  by  Italy?  Or  of 
Porto  Rico  by  the  United  States? 

In  the  light  of  the  oldest  records,  was  Moses'  work  in  your  judgment 
accompUshed  by  natural  or  supernatural  methods? 

What  were  the  chief  characteristics  of  Moses?  What  place  does  he  hold 
in  history? 

Is  modern  socialism  in  any  way  a  revival  of  the  principles  underlying 
the  old  tribal  organization?  How  far  did  Jesus  in  his  idea  of  the 
Kingdom  of  God  build  on  the  old  tribal  idea? 

Subjects  for  Further  Study. 

(1)  Characteristics  of  the  Wilderness  South  of  Palestine.  Hastings, 
Diet.  Bib.  Ill,  505-6.     Kent,  Bib.  Geog.  and  Hist.,  42,  43. 

(2)  The  Rehgion  of  Moses.  Hastings,  Did.  Bib.,  Extra  Vol.  631-634; 
Marti,  Old  Testament  Religion,  36-71. 

(3)  Compare  the  tribal  organization  and  customs  of  the  Israehtes  with 
those  of  the  American  Indian  tribes  of  to-day.  Pubhcations  of  the  /n- 
dian  Association;  publications  of  the  Mohonk  Conferences. 


90  The  Making  of  a  Nation 

STUDY  XII 

A  NATION'S  STRUGGLE  FOR  A  HOME  AND  FREEDOM. 

Israel's  Victories  over  the  Canaanites. — Josh.  2-9; 
Judg.  1,  4,  5. 

Parallel  Readings, 
Hist.  BihU  II,  1-41. 
Prin.  of  Politics  X. 

That  the  leaders  took  the  lead  in  Israel, 
That  the  people  volunteered  readily, 
Bless  Jehovah ! 

Zebulun  was  a  people  who  exposed  themselves  to  deadly  peril, 
And  Naphtali  on  the  heights  of  the  open  field. 
Kings  came,  they  fought; 
They  fought,  the  kings  of  Canaan, 
At  Taanach  by  the  Waters  of  Megiddo, 
They  took  no  booty  of  silver. 
From  heaven  fought  the  stars, 
From  their  courses  fought  against  Sisera, 
The  river  Kishon  swept  them  away, 
That  ancient  river,  the  river  Kishon. 
O  my  soul,  march  on  with  strength! 
When  did  the  horse-hoofs  resound 

With  the  galloping,  galloping  of  their  steeds? — Judg.  5,  9,  18-22  (Hist. 
Bible). 

This  was  King  Arthur's  dreame.  Him  thought  that  there  was  comen 
into  his  lande  many  gryffons  and  serpents,  and  him  thought  that  they 
brent  and  slew  all  the  people  in  the  land.  And  then  him  thought  that  he 
fought  with  them,  and  they  did  him  passing  great  damage  and  wounded 
him  full  sore,  but  at  the  last  he  slewe  them  all. — Malory,  Hist,  of  King 
Arthur;  Mart  d'  Arthur. 

Young  gentlemen,  have  a  resolute  life  purpose.  Don't  get  mad  and 
don't  get  scared. — Burleson. 

I. 
The  Crossing  of  the  Jordan. 

In  the  light  of  the  preceding  studies,  the  motives  that  led  the 
Hebrews  to  cross  the  Jordan  become  evident.  As  the  Pilgrim 
Fathers,  to  secure  a  home  where  they  might  enjoy  and  develop 
their  own  tj^e  of  belief  and  methods  of  civilization,  braved  the 
dimly  known  dangers  of  the  sea  and  the  wilderness,  the  Hebrews 
braved  the  contests  that  unquestionably  lay  before  them. 
Between  the  Sea  of  Galilee  and  the  Dead  Sea  the  Jordan  is 
fordable  at  thirty  points  during  certain  parts  of  the  year.  The 
first  of  the  two  main  fords  in  the  lower  Jordan  is  just  below  the 
point  where  the  Wady  Kelt  enters  the  Jordan  from  the  west  and 


A  Nation^ s  Struggle  for  a  Home  and  Freedom  91 

deposits  its  mass  of  mud  and  silt.  The  other  ford  is  six  miles 
further  north  below  the  point  where  the  Wady  Nimrin  comes 
down  from  the  highlands  of  Gilead.  Here  to-day  the  main 
highway  connecting  the  east  and  the  west-Jordan  country 
crosses  the  river.  This  spot  was  probably  the  scene  of  the 
historic  crossing  at  the  beginning  of  Hebrew  history. 

Certain  writers  hold  that  variant  accounts  of  the  most  im- 
portant facts  in  early  Hebrew  history  have  here  been  preserved. 
Traces  of  three  different  versions  of  the  crossing  of  the  Jordan 
may  still,  in  their  judgment,  be  found  in  the  third  and  fourth 
chapters  of  the  book  of  Joshua.  The  latest  and  most  familiar 
narrative  represents  the  crossing  as  a  superlative  miracle  and 
the  waters  of  the  rushing  river  as  piled  up  like  a  wall  on  either 
side.  The  Northern  Israelite  version  appears  to  have  stated 
that  the  waters  of  the  Jordan  were  dried  up,  implying  that 
the  Hebrews  crossed  during  the  late  summer  when  the  river 
was  easily  fordable.  The  earliest  narrative,  the  Judean 
prophetic,  states  that  ''the  waters  rose  up  in  a  heap,  a  great 
way  off  at  Adam,  the  city  that  is  beside  Zarathan,  and  those 
that  went  down  toward  the  Sea  of  the  Arabah,  the  Salt  Sea, 
were  wholly  cut  off"  (Josh.  3:16b).  From  other  references 
in  the  Old  Testament  it  would  appear  that  the  city  of  Adam, 
which  means  red  earth,  is  to-day  represented  by  the  ruins 
of  Ed-Damieh,  which  stands  near  the  famous  Damieh  ford  at 
the  point  where  the  river  Jabbok  enters  the  Jordan. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  in  this  connection  that  a  reliable 
Moslem  historian  states  that  in  the  year  1257  a.d.  the  retreat- 
ing Moslems  found  it  neccessary  to  repair  the  foundations  of  an 
important  bridge  which  stood  at  this  point.  When  the  work- 
men arrived  on  the  scene  they  were  amazed  to  find  the  river- 
bed empty  and  were  able  by  working  rapidly  to  complete  the 
repairs  before  the  waters  came  rushing  down.  This  remarkable 
phenomenon  seemed  to  them  to  be  due  to  the  direct  interven- 
tion of  Allah;  but  the  historian  fortunately  records  the  cause: 
it  was  a  huge  landslide  a  little  further  up  the  river  which  tem- 
porarily dammed  its  waters.  The  oldest  Biblical  account  of 
the  crossing  of  the  Jordan  may  point  to  a  like  natural  cause.  If 
this  be  true,  does  it  imply  that  Jehovah  had  no  part  in  pre- 
paring the  way  for  the  future  conquests  of  his  people?  Would  a 
miracle,  such  as  that  recorded  in  the  late-priestly  tradition,  be 
any  stronger  proof  of  God's  presence  and  activity  in  human  his- 
tory than  are  the  provisions  which  we  to-day  call  natural? 


92  The  Making  of  a  Nation 

II. 

The  Canaanite  Civilization. 

Contemporary  inscriptions  and  recent  excavations  make  it 
possible  to  form  a  very  definite  conception  of  conditions  in 
Canaan  when  the  Hebrews  crossed  the  Jordan.  The  dominant 
civihzation  was  that  of  the  Canaanites,  the  descendants  of  the 
Semitic  invaders  from  the  desert  who  entered  Palestine  centuries 
before  the  ancestors  of  the  Hebrews.  Naturally  they  settled 
first  along  the  fertile  coast  plains  that  skirt  the  western  Mediter- 
ranean. In  later  times  these  were  known  as  the  Phoenicians. 
As  the  population  increased,  the  Canaanites  pushed  their  out- 
posts along  the  broad  valleys  that  penetrated  the  uplands  of 
Palestine.  These  valleys  were  especially  fertile  and  attractive 
in  the  territory  later  known  as  Galilee  and  Samaria.  The  wide 
Plain  of  Esdraelon  and  its  eastward  extension,  the  Valley  of 
Jezreel,  cut  straight  across  the  central  plateau  of  Palestine. 
The  Plain  of  Esdraelon  was  the  strongest  centre  of  the  Canaan- 
ite civihzation.  A  few  outposts  were  established  in  the  Jordan 
valley,  as  for  example,  Laish,  later  known  as  Dan,  at  the  foot 
of  Mount  Hermon,  and  Jericho,  at  the  southern  end  of  the 
Jordan  valley.  Only  a  few  Canaanite  villages  were  found 
along  the  more  barren  hills  of  Southern  Canaan.  There  the 
peoples  and  civilization  still  retained  the  imprint  of  their  desert 
origin. 

Along  the  coast  plains  and  across  the  great  Plain  of  Esdraelon 
ran  the  main  highways  that  connected  the  three  earliest  and 
most  flourishing  centres  of  the  world's  civilization:  the  Egyptian 
on  the  southwest,  the  Amorite  on  the  north,  probably  between 
the  southern  Lebanons,  and  the  Babylonian  to  the  east  and 
northeast.  For  centuries  the  Canaanites  had  absorbed  the 
ideas,  institutions,  and  culture  of  these  stronger  peoples.  So 
fundamentally  had  the  Babylonians  impressed  the  Canaanites 
that  practically  all  of  the  inscriptions  coming  from  this  early 
period  are  written  in  the  Babylonian  script.  Even  in  writing 
to  their  Egyptian  conqueror  during  the  fourteenth  century,  the 
Canaanite  kings  of  Palestine  used  this  same  Babylonian  sys- 
tem of  writing.  The  Amorite  civilization  had  so  strongly  in- 
fluenced the  Canaanites  that  to-day  it  is  difficult  for  the 
archaeologist  to  distinguish  between  the  two.  By  certain  of 
the  Biblical  writers  the  terms  Canaanite  and  Amorite  are  used 
interchangeably.    As  early  as  1600  B.C.  Eg3^t,  under  the  am- 


A  Nation^ s  Struggle  for  a  Home  and  Freedom  93 

bitious  conquering  kings  of  the  Eighteenth  D3aiasty,  had  over- 
run Palestine  and  for  the  next  three  or  four  centuries  ruled  it  as 
a  tributary  province.  The  nearness  of  Egypt  made  its  influence 
still  more  powerful,  so  that  in  nearly  every  mound  and  Canaan- 
ite  ruin  the  excavator  finds  hundreds  of  reminders  of  the  pres- 
ence of  the  Egyptian  civilization. 

The  Canaanites  had  long  since  left  behind  them  the  nomadic 
state  and  had  developed  a  strong  agricultural  and  commercial 
civilization.  Their  life  centered  about  certain  important  cities 
like  Megiddo  on  the  southwestern  side  and  Bethshean  on  the 
eastern  side  of  the  Plain  of  Esdraelon.  Their  cities  were  usually 
built  on  a  low-lying  hill  in  the  midst  of  rich  encircling  plains. 
They  were  provided  with  thick  mud  walls,  behind  which  the 
inhabitants  felt  secure  from  attack.  Over  each  city  ruled  a 
petty  king,  whose  authority,  however,  did  not  extend  far  be- 
yond the  surrounding  fields  that  belonged  to  the  inhabitants 
of  the  town.  Generally  these  city  states  were  independent. 
In  many  cases  they  were  hostile  to  each  other;  and  the  long 
rule  of  Egypt  had  tended  to  intensify  this  hostility,  for  Egypt 
had  depended  upon  this  local  jealousy  to  maintain  its  control. 
The  diversified  physical  contour  of  Palestine  Hkewise  strength- 
ened this  tendency  toward  separation  rather  than  unity. 

This  type  of  political  organization  favored  the  growth  of  poly- 
theism rather  than  the  worship  of  one  god.  Each  city  had  its 
local  god  or  baal,  which  was  worshipped  at  a  high  place  either 
within  the  city  or  on  some  adjacent  height,  while  in  the  larger 
cities  elaborate  altars  and  temples  were  reared  to  them.  These 
local  deities  were  regarded  as  the  gods  of  fertility  which  gave 
to  their  worshippers  ample  harvests  and  numerous  offspring 
both  of  the  family  and  of  the  flock.  The  principle  of  genera- 
tion occupied  such  a  prominent  place  in  the  Canaanite  cults 
that  in  time  they  became  exceedingly  immoral  and  debasing. 
To  secure  the  favor  of  their  gods  the  Canaanites  brought  rich 
sacrifices  to  their  altars  and  observed  certain  great  annual  festi- 
vals with  ceremonies  very  similar  to  those  later  adopted  by  the 
Hebrews. 

While  the  Canaanites  were  on  a  much  higher  plane  of  material 
civilization  than  the  Hebrews,  they  ultimately  fell  a  prey  to 
those  hardy  invaders  of  the  desert:  (1)  Because  they  were  in- 
capable of  strong  united  action,  and  (2)  because  their  civiliza- 
tion was  corrupt  and  enervating.  Courage  and  real  patriotism 
were  almost  unknown  to  them  even  as  early  as  the  seventeenth 


94  The  Making  of  a  Nation 

century  B.C.,  when  the  Egyptian  king  Thutmose  III  invaded 
the  land  of  Palestine.  Their  strong  walls  and  their  superior 
mihtary  equipment,  however,  made  their  immediate  conquest 
by  the  Hebrews  impossible.  This  explains  why  the  earliest 
account  of  the  initial  conquest,  now  found  in  Judges  1,  is  chiefly 
devoted  to  recounting  the  strong  Canaanite  cities  which  the 
Hebrews  failed  to  conquer. 

III. 

The  Capture  of  the  Outposts  of  Palestine. 

In  the  light  of  our  present  knowledge  of  the  Canaanite  civiliza- 
tion it  becomes  evident  why  most  of  the  early  Hebrew  conquests 
were  in  the  south.  The  only  large  Canaanite  city  which  they 
could  conquer  in  the  early  days  was  Jericho.  Recent  excava- 
tions have  also  shown  why  later  generations  regarded  its  cap- 
ture by  the  Hebrews  as  a  miracle,  although  many  modern 
interpreters  hold  that  the  early  account  does  not  imply  that 
it  was  by  supernatural  means.  Like  most  of  the  Canaanite 
cities,  it  was  situated  on  a  slightly  rising  eminence,  close  to  the 
foothills  that  on  the  west  rose  abruptly  to  the  central  plateau  of 
Canaan.  Northward,  eastward,  and  southward,  extended  for 
miles  the  level  plain  of  the  Jordan  river,  which  plowed  its  way 
through  its  alluvial  bed,  six  miles  east  of  Jericho.  Close  by  the 
site  of  the  ancient  city  came  the  perennial  waters  of  the  Wady 
Kelt  with  which  it  was  possible  to  irrigate  its  fields.  Past  the 
town  ran  the  main  highway  from  across  the  Jordan,  along  the 
northern  side  of  the  Wady  Kelt,  to  join  the  great  central  high- 
way that  extended  through  the  centre  of  Palestine.  Jericho 
was,  therefore,  the  key  to  the  land  of  Canaan,  and  its  capture 
was  necessary  if  the  Hebrews  were  to  maintain  their  connection 
with  their  kinsmen  east  of  the  Jordan. 

The  ruins  of  the  ancient  Canaanite  town  rise  between  forty 
and  fifty  feet  above  the  plain.  It  is  an  oblong  mound  contain- 
ing altogether  about  twelve  acres.  The  excavations  have  dis- 
closed a  large  part  of  the  encircHng  wall.  It  was  a  construction 
of  excellent  workmanship  which  still  stands  practically  intact, 
testifying  to  the  accuracy  of  the  early  Hebrew  tradition.  Its 
foundation  is  a  wall  of  rubble  sixteen  feet  high  and  six  to  eight 
feet  thick,  sloping  inward.  On  the  top  of  this  foundation,  which 
rested  on  the  native  rock,  was  built  a  supplemental  wall  of  burnt 
brick  six  or  seven  feet  in  thickness  and  rising  even  now  in  its 
ruined  condition  on  an  average  eight  feet  above  the  lower  wall. 


A  Nation^  s  Struggle  for  a  Home  and  Freedom  95 

Thus  the  original  wall  must  have  towered  between  twenty  and 
thirty  feet  above  the  plain.  At  the  northern  end  of  the  city 
stood  the  citadel,  made  of  unburnt  brick,  three  stories  high. 
Even  the  stone  staircase  which  led  to  the  top  is  still  intact. 

According  to  these  investigators  the  late  tradition  that  these 
walls  fell  flat  to  the  earth  as  the  result  of  a  miracle  finds  no 
confirmation  in  the  ruins  themselves.  The  older  Hebrew 
account,  however,  in  their  judgment  agrees  perfectly  with  the 
evidence  revealed  by  the  spade  of  the  excavator.  In  imagina- 
tion it  is  easy  to  follow  the  perilous  journey  of  the  Hebrew  spies 
and  to  appreciate  the  importance  of  the  negotiations  by  which 
they  secured  the  co-operation  of  Rahab  and  of  the  clan  within 
Jericho  which  she  represented.  Later  come  the  Hebrew  hordes 
from  across  the  Jordan  bearing  with  them  the  ark  which  sym- 
bolized to  them  the  presence  of  Jehovah,  who  had  led  them  on  to 
victory  in  many  an  early  battle.  Behind  their  impregnable 
walls  the  inhabitants  of  Jericho  must  have  laughed  scornfully  at 
the  desert  host,  that  seemed  utterly  incapable  of  an  effective 
attack  or  of  a  protracted  siege.  According  to  many  modern 
interpreters  the  earliest  Hebrew  host  marched  silently  about 
the  Canaanite  stronghold.  At  first  the  inhabitants  of  Jericho, 
accustomed  to  Arab  strategy,  undoubtedly  held  themselves 
ready  for  defence.  When  no  attack  came,  their  vigilance 
was  gradually  relaxed.  At  last  on  the  seventh  day,  when 
conditions  were  favorable,  at  the  preconcerted  signal,  a  trumpet 
blast,  the  Hebrews  rushed  toward  the  walls,  the  gates  were 
probably  opened  by  their  allies  within  the  city,  and  Jericho 
was  quickly  captured.  The  method  of  attack  recorded  in  the 
prophetic  narrative  was  very  similar  to  the  strategy  used  a  little 
later  by  the  Hebrews  in  the  capture  of  the  smaller  towns  of  Ai 
and  Bethel.  They  are  the  methods  still  employed  by  the  Bed- 
ouins in  their  attacks  upon  the  outposts  of  Palestine. 

The  fierce  nomadic  instincts  of  these  early  Hebrew  warriors 
are  revealed  by  the  fate  which  they  visited  upon  Jericho  and 
its  inhabitants.  The  recent  excavations  confirm  the  Biblical 
testimony  that  for  several  centuries  after  its  initial  capture  the 
ancient  town  was  left  a  heap  of  ruins. 

Its  inhabitants  were  slain  as  a  great  sacrificial  offering  to 
Jehovah,  whose  true  character  as  one  who  loves  all  mankind 
was  first  appreciated  by  the  inspired  prophets  of  a  much  later 
age. 


96  The  Making  of  a  Nation 

From  the  plain  of  Jericho  two  or  three  roads  led  up  to  the  cen- 
tral plateau  of  Canaan.  The  main  road  along  the  Wady  Kelt  ran 
past  the  villages  of  Ai  and  Bethel.  At  most  they  were  small 
towns  and  easily  captured.  Along  this  highway  went  the 
Hebrew  tribes  later  known  as  the  Ephraimites  and  Manas- 
sites.  The  other  roads  led  through  the  wilderness  southwestward 
to  the  heart  of  Judah.  The  frontier  town  of  Bezek,  mentioned 
in  the  ancient  narrative  of  Judges,  has  not  yet  been  identified. 
The  name  is  perhaps  but  a  scribal  corruption  of  Bethlehem  or 
of  Bethzur  further  to  the  south.  The  other  towns  ultimately 
captured  by  the  southern  tribes  were  Hebron,  with  its  copious 
water  supply,  Debir  to  the  southwest,  and  Arad  and  Hormah 
which  lay  on  the  borders  of  the  South  Country.  The  capture 
of  these  six  or  seven  outposts  represents  the  first  stage  in  the 
conquest  and  settlement  of  Palestine.  It  was  significant  be- 
cause it  meant  that  the  people  from  the  wilderness  had  gained 
a  foothold  in  the  land  where  they  ultimately  found  their  home. 
It  inaugurated  Israel's  pioneer  period.  The  Hebrews  were  no 
longer  homeless  wanderers  in  the  desert,  nor  sojourners  in  a 
foreign  land.  At  this  point  Israel's  history  as  a  nation  prop- 
erly begins,  although  the  complete  union  of  the  tribes  was  not 
consummated  until  nearly  a  century  later. 

IV. 
Ways  by  which  the  Israelites  Won  their  Homes. 
The  impression  conveyed  by  the  later  passages  in  the  book  of 
Joshua  that  the  Hebrews  within  a  period  of  seven  years  became 
complete  masters  of  the  land  of  Canaan  is  different  from  that 
made  by  the  older  records  in  Judges.  These  indicate  that 
the  process  was  gradual,  extending  through  several  genera- 
tions. Except  at  two  or  three  great  crises,  this  conquest  ap- 
pears to  have  been  peaceful  rather  than  by  the  sword,  a  process 
of  settlement  and  colonization  rather  than  of  capture.  To- 
day throughout  many  parts  of  Palestine  one  may  still  see, 
close  to  the  cities,  the  black  tents  and  the  flocks  of  the  Bedouin 
immigrants.  In  the  days  of  the  Hebrew  settlement  the 
Canaanites  were  largely  confined  to  the  fertile  valleys.  The 
uplands  were  still  open  to  the  men  from  the  desert.  Here 
the  Hebrews  pitched  their  tents  and  finally  built  their  rude 
homes.  In  this  more  favorable  environment  their  families  and 
their  flocks  gradually  increased  until  they  began  to  encroach 
upon  the  territory  already  occupied  by  the  older  inhabitants. 


A  Nation's  Struggle  for  a  Home  and  Freedom  97 

The  resulting  quarrels  and  differences  were  sometimes  settled 
by  the  appeal  to  the  sword;  more  frequently  by  alliances  sealed 
by  intermarriages.  The  early  narrative  in  the  ninth  and  tenth 
chapters  of  the  book  of  Judges  gives  a  vivid  picture  of  the  result- 
ing condition:  in  the  strong  Canaanite  city  of  Shechem, 
Hebrews  and  Canaanites  had  so  far  intermarried  that  Abime- 
lech,  a  product  of  this  intermarriage,  succeeded  his  father 
Gideon  as  king  of  the  first  little  Hebrew  kingdom.  At  Shechem 
Hebrews  and  Canaanites  also  worshipped  side  by  side  in  the 
common  sanctuary,  which  was  known  as  "  the  temple  of  Baal 
of  the  Covenant." 

Under  the  pressure  of  the  increased  population  certain  of 
the  Hebrew  tribes  migrated  and  seized  new  territory.  Such  a 
migration  is  vividly  recorded  in  Judges  17  and  18.  The  little 
tribe  of  the  Danites,  finding  the  pressure  of  their  kinsmen  on 
the  north  and  east  and  that  of  the  Philistines  on  the  west  too 
strong,  captured  the  Canaanite  city  of  Laish  at  the  foot  of 
Mount  Hermon  and  thus  found  a  permanent  home  in  the  upper 
Jordan  valley. 

It  was  a  cruel,  barbarous  age  in  which  might  was  regarded  as 
right.  Thus,  Ehud  the  Benjamite,  who  treacherously  gained 
admittance  to  the  presence  of  Eglon,  secretly  slew  this  Moabite 
oppressor  of  the  Hebrews.  This  act  instead  of  being  condemned 
was  regarded  then  and  even  by  later  generations  as  an  example 
of  courageous  patriotism.  Was  his  act  justifiable?  How  would 
it  be  regarded  in  America  to-day? 

V. 

Deborah's  Rally  of  the  Hebrews. 
The  growing  numbers  and  strength  of  the  Israelites  at  last 
alarmed  the  Canaanites.  A  certain  leader  by  the  name  of 
Sisera  formed  a  coalition  of  the  strong  Canaanite  cities  encircling 
the  Plain  of  Esdraelon.  The  centre  of  this  coalition  was  the 
powerful  city  of  Megiddo,  the  ruins  of  which  on  the  south- 
western side  of  the  plain  still  remain  to  testify  to  the  natural 
strength  of  this  ancient  stronghold.  The  policy  of  the  Canaan- 
ites was  to  keep  the  different  Hebrew  clans  apart  and  thus  pre- 
vent united  action.     In  the  words  of  the  ancient  song: 

In  the  days  of  Jael  the  highways  were  unused, 
And  travellers  walked  by  round-about  paths. 
The  rulers  ceased  in  Israel; 


98  The  Making  of  a  Nation 

A  shield  was  not  seen  in  five  cities 
Nor  a  spear  among  forty  thousand. 

The  one  who  alone  appears  to  have  understood  the  crisis 
and  to  have  been  able  to  stir  the  Israelites  to  action  was  Deborah, 
the  prophetess  of  the  central  tribe  of  Issachar.  Israel's  struggle 
for  independence  is  graphically  recorded  in  the  ancient  poem 
found  in  Judges  5.  The  later  prose  version  of  the  incident, 
found  in  Judges  4,  supplements  the  earlier  poem.  To  a  chief  of 
a  northern  tribe  of  Napthali,  a  certain  Barak,  she  turned  as  the 
natural  leader  in  the  struggle  for  independence.  Together  they 
sent  out  the  summons  to  the  different  northern  tribes.  The 
southern  tribes  of  Judah  and  Simeon  were  apparently  ignored. 
The  distant  tribes  of  Asher,  Dan  and  Reuben  were  engrossed 
in  their  local  interests  and  failed  to  respond.  The  tribesmen 
who  rallied  forty  thousand  strong  on  the  northern  side  of  the 
Plain  of  Esdraelon  represented  the  great  central  Hebrew  clans. 
The  ancient  song,  sung  by  the  women  as  they  met  the  returning 
warriors,  makes  it  possible  to  reconstruct  the  battle  scene. 
Through  the  broad  valleys  that  lead  into  the  Plain  of  Esdraelon 
from  the  north  came  the  sinewy,  unkempt,  roughly  clad  and 
poorly  equipped  Hebrew  tribesmen,  each  clan  led  by  its  local 
chief.  They  had  "  come  up  to  the  help  of  Jehovah  against  the 
mighty."  Tribal  patriotism,  the  memory  of  past  grievances, 
the  desire  for  plunder,  and  zeal  for  Jehovah  the  God  who  had  led 
their  forefathers  through  the  wilderness  into  the  land  of  Canaan, 
stirred  their  courage  and  fired  them  to  deeds  of  valor.  Well 
they  chose  their  battlefield,  out  on  the  plain  on  the  northern  side 
of  the  muddy,  sluggish  river  Kishon.  On  the  slightly  rising 
ground  they  faced  the  Canaanite  warriors  who  came  out  across 
the  plain  from  the  city  of  Megiddo,  six  miles  away.  The 
Canaanites  were  armed  with  chariots  and  the  best  weapons  that 
the  early  Semitic  civilization  could  produce,  but  one  thing  they 
lacked,  —  courage,  fired  by  religious  zeal. 

Again  a  striking  natural  phenomenon  appears  suddenly  to 
have  turned  the  tide  of  Israel's  fortune.  On  the  eve  of  battle 
a  drenching  thunderstorm  seems  to  have  swept  across  the  al- 
luvial plain  transforming  it  into  a  morass  and  the  sluggish 
Kishon  into  a  rushing,  unfordable  river.  In  the  words  of  the 
ancient  triumphal  ode: 

From  heaven  fought  the  stars, 

From  their  courses  fought  against  Sisera. 


A  NatiorCs  Struggle  for  a  Home  and  Freedom  99 

The  river  Kishon  swept  them  away, 

The  ancient  river,  the  river  Kishon. 

O  my  soul,  march  on  with  strength ! 

Then  did  the  horse-hoofs  resound 

With  the  galloping,  galloping  of  their  steeds. 

The  Hebrew  even  brings  out  the  sound  of  the  sucking  of  the 
horses'  hoofs  in  the  soft  mud.  The  storm  not  only  gave  to  the 
Hebrews,  who  were  on  foot,  a  vast  advantage,  but  it  meant  to 
them  that  Jehovah,  whose  chariot  was  the  clouds,  his  weapons, 
the  lightning,  and  who  spoke  through  the  thunders,  was  fighting 
in  their  behalf. 

The  victory  was  overwhelming.  Sisera,  the  Canaanite 
leader,  fled,  but  only  to  fall  later,  ignominiously  slain  by  a 
woman.  Henceforth  the  Canaanite  cities  of  central  Palestine 
were  occupied  by  the  Hebrews.  The  vanquished  were  either 
enslaved  or  absorbed  in  intermarriage.  From  them,  how- 
ever, the  Hebrews  learned  skill  in  agriculture  and  received  a 
heritage  of  art,  ideas  and  customs  that  had  been  developed  by 
the  Canaanites  for  many  centuries.  How  far  was  this  heritage 
beneficial  to  the  Hebrews?  What  temptations  did  it  bring  to 
them?  Did  it  mark  a  step  forward  in  their  development? 
Were  the  early  Hebrews  a  pure  or  a  mixed  race? 

More  important  than  the  spoils  and  lands  which  fell  to  the 
Hebrews  was  the  new  demonstration  of  Jehovah's  ability  and 
willingness  to  dehver  his  people  which  they  received  in  the  battle 
beside  Kishon.  Throughout  all  of  Israel's  colonial  period  the 
chief  force  binding  the  scattered  Hebrew  tribes  together  was 
their  faith  in  Jehovah.  The  victory  greatly  strengthened  that 
faith  and  prepared  the  way  for  the  closer  union  which  was  neces- 
sary before  Israel  could  become  a  permanent  force  among  the 
nations  of  the  earth.  The  vision  of  what  they  had  been  able 
to  achieve  through  united  action  never  completely  faded  from 
the  memory  of  the  Hebrews.  Their  subsequent  experiences 
also  tended  to  revive  this  memory.  Amidst  the  warring  ele- 
ments in  Palestine  a  powerful  nation  was  gradually  taking 
form;  in  the  school  of  hard  experience  it  was  learning  the  lessons 
that  were  fitting  it  for  a  large  life. 

VI. 

The  Final  Stage  in  the  Making  of  the  Hebrew  Nation. 

The  final  stage  in  the  evolution  of  Israel  is  recorded  in  the 

opening  chapters  of  I  Samuel  and  is  best  studied  in  detail  in 


100  The  Making  of  a  Nation 

connection  with  the  history  of  the  nation  at  its  zenith.  We 
have  studied  the  forces  which  made  the  nation.  A  brief 
summary  will  indicate  the  transition  to  the  next  period,  that 
of  the  kingdom.  The  victory  over  the  Canaanites  gave  the 
Hebrews  possession  of  the  land  and  left  them  free  to  coalesce 
into  a  united  nation;  but  the  centrifugal  tribe  spirit  for  a  time 
proved  the  stronger.  Under  Gideon  a  beginning  was  made 
in  kingdom  making,  but  owing  to  the  cruelty  and  inefficiency 
of  his  son  Abimelech,  the  first  Hebrew  state  lasted  little  more 
than  a  generation. 

The  compeUing  power  that  finally  brought  all  the  rival  He- 
brew tribes  together  under  a  common  leader  was  the  conquest 
of  their  territory  by  the  warlike,  ambitious  Philistines.  In  in- 
spiring the  Benjamite  chieftain  Saul  to  deliver  his  countrymen 
in  their  hour  of  shame  and  peril,  Samuel  the  prophet  proved  the 
true  father  of  the  Hebrew  kingdom.  Under  the  compulsion 
of  common  danger  the  Israelites  not  only  followed  Saul  to  vic- 
tory, but  also  made  him  their  king.  From  this  time  on  Israel 
took  its  place  among  the  nations  of  the  earth. 

During  their  formative  period  the  Hebrews  acquired  many 
characteristics  that  they  have  retained  throughout  their  his- 
tory. From  their  early  nomadic  life  they  inherited  physical 
strength,  hardihood,  adaptability  even  to  the  most  unfavorable 
environment,  courage,  perseverance  and  that  individual  initia- 
tive and  self-reliance  which  come  from  protracted  struggles 
against  seemingly  insuperable  odds.  It  was  a  harsh  but  thor- 
ough school  in  which  the  infant  nation  Israel  was  trained. 
Their  life  in  the  wilderness  and  in  the  period  of  settlement  also 
developed  an  intense  love  for  freedom  and  that  democratic 
spirit  that  was  the  glory  of  Israel  and  the  foundation  of  its 
political  institutions. 

People  passing  their  time  chiefly  out  of  doors  and  enjoying 
the  uplifting  stimulus  of  an  unfettered  life  in  the  open  naturally 
acquire  a  feeling  of  awe  and  reverence  for  the  God  of  nature  that 
is  often  lacking  in  the  city  dweller.  Especially  is  this  true  if, 
like  the  early  Hebrews,  the  dwellers  in  the  open  feel  that  need 
of  divine  protection  which  is  begotten  by  constant  exposure  to 
danger,  hunger,  hardship  and  hostile  foes.  The  many  crises  and 
the  signal  deliverances  that  came  to  the  Hebrews  not  only  in- 
tensified their  faith,  but  also  gave  them  the  consciousness  that 
the  God  in  whom  they  put  their  trust  was  both  able  and  eager 
to  dehver  them.     Prophets  like  Moses  strengthened  the  popu- 


A  Nation^ s  Struggle  for  a  Home  and  Freedom  101 

lar  sense  of  Jehovah's  immediate  presence  and  interpreted  the 
significance  of  each  event. 

Israel's  early  faith  was  simple,  like  that  of  a  little  child. 
While  its  beliefs  were  crude,  its  trust  was  strong.  It  was  this 
trust  and  loyalty  that  carried  the  child  nation  through  its  early 
crises  and  ultimately  bound  together  the  separate  tribes  into  a 
united  commonwealth.  Thus  Israel's  early  history  illustrates 
the  fundamental  truth  that  the  most  essential,  the  most  power- 
ful force  in  the  making  of  a  nation  is  a  simple,  practical,  every- 
day religion. 

Questions  for  Further  Consideration. 

Should  the  successful  and  easy  crossing  of  the  Jordan  by  the  Israehtes 
be  ascribed  to  miracle  or  to  their  own  promptness  in  seizing  an  opportunity 
unexpectedly  offered?  / 

In  what  ways  did  the  ^-^ligious  zeal  of  the  ancient  Hebrews  in  battle 
differ  from  the  fanatical  zeal  of  the  modern  Moslem  in  fighting  the  Chris- 
tians?   Or  the  zeal  of  the  Japanese  before  Port  Arthur? 

When,  if  ever,  is  assassination  justifiable  as  a  political  expedient?  Give 
your  reasons. 

Were  the  Hebrews  justified  in  the  methods  employed  in  securing  control 
of  Palestine? 

Is  it  right  for  a  progressive  nation  to  compel  a  backward  nation  to  sub- 
mit? Were  the  Americans  on  this  ground  justified  in  seizing  the  lands  of 
the  Indians? 

What  were  the  chief  tenets  in  the  early  faith  of  the  Hebrews? 

How  did  Israel's  faith  affect  its  political  development? 

In  what  important  ways  was  religion  effective  in  making  the  English 
state?    The  American  commonwealth? 

Subjects  for  Further  Study. 

(1)  The  Structure  and  Literary  History  of  the  Book  of  Judges.  Mc- 
Fadyen,  Introd.  to  0.  T.  76-83;  Kent,  Student's  O.  T.  I,  26,  27. 

(2)  Conditions  in  Canaan  at  the  Time  of  the  Hebrew  Settlement.  Paton, 
Early  Hist,  of  Syria  and  Pal.,  157-60;  Maspero,  Struggle  of  the  Nations, 
111-208;  Encyc.  Bib.  II,  2223-5. 

(3)  The  Motives  that  Inspired  the  Leaders  of  the  American  Revolution. 
Fiske,  Lodge,  Bancroft  or  other  writers  on  this  period. 


Date  Due 

N  ^  ■? ., 

Mo\/  'if  n  'IM 

■• 

f 

m 


